A-Aram-Z

                                            A 

AARON (אהרון). The elder brother of Moses.  The data concerning Aaron is 

        of utmost importance, although sketchy.  Aaron was Moses' helper in free-

        ing the Israelites from Egyptian bondage.  Aaron with his rod performed a 

        sign before Pharaoh.  Aaron was beside Moses in leading and organizing 

        the people.  Through anointing by Moses, Aaron became the priest.  The 

        tent of meeting and the ark within it were committed to Aaron's charge.

                   The Bible has 3 descriptions of Aaron. 1st, Aaron was the most out- 

        standing of the Levites.  250 leaders of the tribe protested that there was 

        no need for the Levites to be specially set apart to worship God; the issue 

        was settled by Aaron winning a trial by ordeal.  And when a rod from each 

        the twelve tribes was placed before the ark, the rod of Levi (Aaron's)      

        blossomed.  The priesthood of Aaron and his descendants was "by a per-

        petual statute."  Moses interceded for Aaron when the golden calf was 

        made.  Aaron and his sons are charged with teaching Israel's children all 

        the Lord's statutes.  But the priesthood Aaron's first 2 sons, Nadab and  

        Abihu, was rejected.  When Aaron, like Moses, was forbidden to enter the 

        Promised Land, Moses invested Eleazar with Aaron's garments. 

                   2nd, Aaron was the spokesman for Moses; he met Moses at the 

        mountain of God and, instructed by Moses, returned with him and con-

        vinced the people by words and signs. Aaron accompanied Moses up the 

        mountain.  3rd, Aaron is described as an elder, a leader and judge of the 

        people, not a priest. Aaron was the passive agent of the people's irresisti-

        ble desire to commit apostasy in making the golden calf. Aaron died and 

        was buried at Moserah.

AARONITES  (בני אהרן (be nie  ar on), sons of Aaron)  All the priests whose

        descent is traced from Aaron as the founder and head of the priesthood.

AARON'S ROD.  Aaron cast down his rod and it became a serpent and swal-

        lowed the serpent-rods cast down by Egyptian magicians.  Aaron used 

        his rod to bring about the first 3 plagues.  Other passages describe the 

        rod as Moses' rod.   Aaron's rod blossomed before the ark, confirming 

        Levites in the priesthood.

AB  (אב, fruit (?)).  The fifth Hebrew month (July-August)

ABAGTHA (אבגﬨא).  1 of 7 eunuchs sent by Ahasuerus, king of Persia, to

        accompany the queen, Vasthi, to the royal feast; such eunuchs were 

        usually foreigners. 

ABANA  (אבנה).  A river flowing down from Anti-Lebanon through Damas-

        cus, it provides the region with water.  The river disappears in the steppe 

        east of Damascus.

ABARIM (עברים, regions beyond).  A mountainous region at the Western 

        edge of the plateau of northern Moab.  Israelites encamped here after 

        leaving Almon-dibla-thaim and before reaching the plains of Moab.

ABBA (אבא).  A termed used as equal to “my father,” or “our father.” The ex- 

        pression is assumed to be a common, informal one, used in family circles.

        In Judaism, the figurative use of “father” implies a close relationship be-

        tween God and Israel; it is rarely found in the earlier literature. Jesus uses 

        the word as one who is close to God.   

ABDA  (עבדא, servant of Yahu). The father of Aboniram, who was in charge 

        of forced labor under Solomon.

ABDEEL  (עבדאל, servant of God).  The father of Shelimiah, a courtier of 

        Jehoiakim.

ABDIEL  (עבדיאל, servant of God).  Guni's son and Ahi's father of in Gad's     

        genealogy.    

                                           A-1

ABDON  (עבדון, service or servile).    1. Son of Hillel one of the minor jud-

        ges.   He “judged Israel” eight years and apparently headed a family of    

        some  wealth and prominence.      2.  Son of Shashak of Benjamin.      

        3.  Firstborn son of Jeiel, ancestor of Saul.     4.  Courtier of King Josiah.     

        5.  Levitical town in the territory of Asher.

ABEL  (הבל, אבל vanity, breath, vapor, son)  His name perhaps stresses the 

        shortness of Abel's life or the weak, transitory nature of human life.   As 

        “son,” it could be a generic term for humankind.   Abel presented to Yahweh

        an offering "of the firstling of his flock," which found favor with Yahweh. 

        Cain murdered his innocent and unsuspecting younger brother.   Abel is 

        memorialized as the first righteous martyr.

ABEL-BETH-MAACAH (מעכה בית  אבל).  A fortified city in Northern Is-

        rael, where Sheba, Bichri’s son took refuge after his abortive rebellion 

        against David.  It was among the towns taken by Ben-hadad of Damascus. 

ABEL-KERAMIM  (כרמים אבל, watercourse of vineyards).  The terminal 

        point of Jephthah's military campaign against the Ammonites.

ABEL-MEHOLAH (בל מחלחא, dance place by a stream).  A city E of the 

        Jordan, and the residence of Elisha. In the judges' time, it was the place 

        the Midianites fled to after being attacked at night and routed from their

        camp by Gideon.  Elijah received instruction to anoint Elisha of this town 

        as his successor.

ABI-ALBON  בי־עלבון) א).  One of David's heroes known as the Thirty.

ABIASAPH  (אביאסף, father has gathered)).  A division of the Levites descen-

        ded from Korah.

ABIATHAR  (אביתר, father (God) gives abundantly).  Son of Ahimelech and 

        sole survivor of King Saul's slaughter of the priests of Nob. He fled to 

        David and became his priest and the interpreter of an oracle.  After the cap-

        ture of Jerusalem, we find this man coupled with Zadok as chief priests 

        to David.  If he was a guardians of a Northern shrine, he would be an 

        invaluable aid in getting and keeping the allegiance of the Northern Israe-

        lite tribes. 

                   Abiathar later supported Adonijah's claims, while his rival Zadok 

        backed Solomon. Abiathar was exiled to Anathoth, escaping death only 

        because of his earlier association with David. Perhaps the prophet Jere-    

        miah was this man's descendent.  He has been suggested as the early 

        source of the books of Samuel.

   

ABIB (אביב, young head of grain).  The Canaanite name of the first Hebrew 

        month, later called Nisan.

ABIDA (אבידע, my father knows).  The fourth son of Midian, from the line of 

        Abraham and Keturah.

ABIDAN (אבידן, the divine father judged).  A leader of Benjamin, he was 

        among the twelve who assisted    Moses in taking a census of Israel, 

        and other tasks.

ABIEL  (אביאל, father is El).  1. A Benjamite who appears to be the grand-

        father of Saul, but who is more likely his great-grandfather.      

        2.  (See Abi-Albon).

ABIEZER  (אביעזר, father is help).  1.  A family of Manasseh to whom some 

        of the Manassite territory in Canaan was allotted.      2.  The family of Gi- 

        deon.  Gideon's early support in the campaign against Midianites came 

        from the Abiezrites.     3.  A Benjamite from Anathoth; a member of 

        David's bodyguard, and in charge of one division of 24,000 men.

                                            A-2

ABIGAIL  (אביגיל, my father rejoices).  1.  Wife of Nabal, who persuaded 

        David not to take vengeance on Nabal for snubbing him, and later wife of

        David.  She bore him a son named Chileab.      2.  Sister or half-sister of 

        David.  She married Jether the Ishmaelite, by whom she bore Amasa, 

        whom David appointed his army's captain in place of Joab.

ABIHAIL (אביחיל, father (deity) is might). 1. A Levite, ancestor of the house of 

        Merari.     2.  Wife of Abishur.     3. A Gadite.     4. The cousin and wife of 

        Jerimoth.      5. The father of Queen Esther, and uncle of Mordecai.

ABIHU  (אביהוא, father is he).  One of the first 2 sons of Aaron (Nadab is the 

        other). Leviticus 10: 1-5 obscurely narrates their priestly sin and 

        destruction.

ABIHUD  (אביהוד, father is majesty) A Benjaminite who is said to be the third 

        son of Bela.  Could also be read “father of Ehud.”

ABIJAH (אביהו, Yahweh is my father). 1.  Becher’s son, of Benjamin.      

        2.  Hezron’s wife, of Judah.     3.  Samuel’s younger son.  A judge in Beer-

        sheba along with brother Joel.  Because of their injustices, the people of 

        Israel demanded a king.      4.  Aaron’s descendant. He was the head of 

        the 8th division in temple service.

                   5.  King of Judah around 915-913, son and successor of Rehoboam. 

        Abijah reigned only 2 full years.  The border warfare between Jeroboam and 

        Rehoboam was continued in Abijah's reign.   Abijah's victory, in which he 

        captured Bethel, Jeshanah, and Ephron, had only temporary significance.

        Abijah had 14 wives, 22 sons, and 16 daughters.

                   6.  Son of Jeroboam I, king of Israel.  This king sent his wife to in-

        quire of the prophet Ahijah what would become his ailing son.  Ahijah pro-

        nounce doom upon the house of Jeroboam, and said the child would die 

        immediately on his wife's return home.      7.  Mother of Hezekiah, king of 

        Judah.      8.  One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant made 

        by Nehemiah and the people to serve the Lord.       9.  A chief priest who 

        returned with Zerubbabel from Babylon to Jerusalem.

ABILENE  (Αβιληνη)  A small mountainous region high in the Anti-Lebanons, 

        north-east of Mount Hermon and west of Damascus. It was ruled for Rome

        by Ptolemy.  His son Lysanias ruled during successive Parthian and Ro-

        man invasions (40-38 B.C.) and was executed by Mark Anthony who gave 

        Abilene to Cleopatra in 36 B.C.  Augustus assigned it to King Herod the 

        Great. After his death, Abilene was included in the province of Syria.  In 37 

        A.D., it was joined to Palestine under King Herod Agrippa I (37-44).  It is 

        recorded that Abila became an episcopal seat with the Patriarchate of 

        Antioch.  Abila of Lysanias is the modern es-Suk. 

ABIMELECH  (אבימל, Malek is father)  1.  An ancient king of Gerar about 

        whom we have no information. He is the local ruler in 2 of the 3 versions 

        of a folk story about a patriarch's pretending his wife was only his sister.  

        Despite his anger, the king gives them protection.  The story has Abmime-

        lech and his army commander, Phicol, involved in a dispute about wells 

        with the patriarch.

                   2.  Son of Jerubbaal (Gideon), king over Shechem for a brief peri-

        od. Upon Gideon's death, Abimelech won out against the other sons of 

        Gideon by enlisting the aid of relatives in Shechem.  He hired a band, 

        journeyed to his father's house, and slew his 70 half-brothers; only Jo-

        tham escaped.  

                   Jotham was successful in creating dissension.  In the rebellion 

        that followed, Abimelech defeated the rebels, and destroyed Shechem.      

        While assaulting the nearby town of Thabez, he had his skull crushed by 

        a millstone.  The story is significant in that it gives a vivid picture of the 

        conflict between Israelites and Canaanites during the Conquest. His reign 

        wasn't that of a hereditary monarch, nor was he charismatic like his father. 

        He was more like the petty ruler of a Canaanite city-state. 

ABINADAB  (אבינדב, father is noble)    1. The father of Eleazar, Ahio and 

        Uzzah.   His home sheltered the ark for some 20 years. His son Eleazar 

        was consecrated to have charge over the ark.  His son Uzzah died after 

        touching the ark.      2.  The 2nd son of Jesse.      3.  A son of Saul who 

        perished in the Battle of Mt. Gilboa.

ABINOAM   (אבינעם, father is pleasantness)  Barak's father who, inspired by 

        Deborah, marshaled the Northern Hebrew forces and defeated Sisera's 

        Canaanites forces.

  

ABIRAM  (אבירם, my father is exalted)  1.  Son of Eliab, tribe of Reuben.  

        Along with his brother Dathan, he led the rebellion against Moses.  The

        rebels and their households were swallowed up by a crack in the Earth.  

        2. The first born son of Hiel of Bethel, who died when his father rebuilt 

        Jericho. 

ABISHAG  (אבישג, my father is a wanderer)  A very beautiful Shunammite mai-

        den, brought as a medical measure to restore David's youth and vigor.  

        She was considered by Solomon to be David's wife.

                             A-3

ABISHAI (אבישי, father exists).   Eldest son of Zuruiah, sister of David, brother 

        of Joab and Asahel.  Abishai was very brave and loyal to David, and shared 

        an impervious hardness with his brother Joab.

                   Abishai first appears in a daring exploit, when he accompanied 

        David into Saul's camp.  Abishai urged Saul’s execution, but David did 

        not.  Abishai was also at Gideon’s Pool, when Abner challenged Joab and 

        his men to a trial by combat.  Abner lost and fled, pursued by Asahel, Abi-

        shai's brother; Abner was forced to slay him.  Abishai and Joab took up the 

        chase and were dissuaded from killing Abner by his pathetic display.

                   In the 1^st Ammonite war, Syrian mercenaries tried to join the 

        Ammonites. To prevent this union, Joab divided his army; he routed the 

        Syrians with part, while Abishai routed the Ammonites.  When Absalom's 

        rebellion forced David to flee, Shimei, Saul’s son, grievously cursed the 

        king, but was spared the speedy death Abishai proposed, much to Abi-    

        shai's disgust.  Abishai also shared joint command with Joab and Ittai.

                   Abishai and Joab were also in command of elite troops which suc-

        cessfully put down the rebellion of Sheba the Benjamite.  Abishai shared 

        the leadership with David and Joab in the conquering of Edom.  He had 

        the singular honor of being the commander of the Mighty Men of David 

        known as The 30; he rescued David at Nob, and slayed 300 men.

ABISHUA  (אבישוע, the divine father is salvation)  1.  Son of Bela, grandson 

        of Benjamin.    2. Great-grandson of Aaron and ancestor of Ezra the scribe.

ABISHUR  (אבישור, my father is a wall).  Son of Shammai in the genealogy 

        of Jerahmeel (I Chronicles 8).

ABITAL  (אביטל, my father is protection). A wife of David; the mother of She-

        phatiah (II Samuel 3).

ABITUB  ( אביטוב, my father is good).  Son of Shaharaim, listed in the 

        genealogy of Benjamin.

ABLUTIONS  (βαπτισμοιι (bap tis moy).  Ceremonial washings.  In the let-

        ter to the Hebrews, the author speaks of "various ablutions" in the Levitical 

        code (OT) which have now been superseded by the Holy Spirit.

ABNER  (אבנר, father is Ner or father of light).  The commander of the Israe-

        lite army under Saul; he was in charge of the Philistine campaign, and in- 

        troduced David to Saul.  Abner went with Saul in his frenzied persecution 

        of David.  David chided him for his lack of vigilance in guarding Saul.

                   After Saul died, Abner placed Ish-baal, Saul's son, on the throne.  

        The tribe of Judah would not support him and defected to David.  During 

        the warfare between David's and Saul's forces, Abner met Joab at the 

        Pool of Gibeon, challenged Joab to have a trial by combat with 12 men 

        from each side, was defeated and fled. Abner was pursued by Asahel, 

        whom he killed, and by Joab and Abishai, with whom he pleaded for his 

        life.   Abner returned to Mahanaim with a loss of 360 men.

                  Abner went in to Rizpah, a royal concubine; he was rebuked by the 

        king, whom he rebuked right back for making too much of a fault conside-

        ring a woman.  Abner opened negotiations with David, and returned David's 

        wife, Michal.   He strongly encouraged the elders of Israel in their desire for 

        David as their king.   Abner and his diplomats arrived at Hebron to arrange 

        the reunion of the two parts of the kingdom. 

                    Joab was outraged that the king had received Abner favorably, tricked     

            Abner into coming back to Hebron, where he and Abishai murdered him.      

            When David found out, he proclaimed a public lamentation for Abner.   At

            this critical point in the reuniting of the kingdoms, David convinced the peo-

            ple of his complete innocence and real regret for Abner's death.

ABOMINATION (a.) תועבה (to 'ebah) ; b and c.) שקץ (shik koots); 

        d.) פגול (pig gool))  Whatever is ritually or ethically loathsome and repug- 

        nant to God and men. 

                a.)  toebah:  offensive violation of established custom [compare with 

        taboo]. 

                b. and c.)  shikkuts: “detestable things” objects connected with idola-

        try and heathen deities.   A related word is used for the animal flesh which   

        defiles if touched or eaten.

                d.)  piggul:  putrid, three-day old sacrificial flesh, unlawful to eat.

                                            A-4    

ABOMINATION THAT MAKES DESOLATE. Enigmatic phrase occurring in Da- 

    niel, Matthew, and Mark.

              1. The phrases in Daniel may be translated “desolating abomina-

    tion. (See Abomination).” The term probably indicates a foreign deity or

    some symbol connected with it and has two distinct meanings.   First, "to

    be appalled and overwhelmed”; second, “to empty of inhabitants.”   These

    meanings make sense when used in connection with the Altar of Zeus

    that was erected on Yahweh's altar in the temple (mentioned in non-cano-

    nical writings of the times), appalling the worshipers and emptying the 

    temple.   A third meaning, implying the madness of the Greek ruler in buil-

    ding the altar also makes sense.
               2. In Mark's Gospel, the phrase becomes an apocalyptic (i.e. Judg-
    ment Day) figure.     3. Matthew links the phrase to the above temple image
    while still remaining apocalyptic.   Luke replaces the phrase with the more 

    earthly threat of Jerusalem surrounded by armies.   While the original say-

    ing probably referred to Jerusalem's coming destruction by Roman ar-

    mies, the event was seen by the early church as one more sign that the

    forces of evil were loose in the world.

ABRAHAM (אברהם, father of a multitude).  The patriarch started out as “Ab-

        ram,” which, like Abiram, means “exalted father.”  In the necessity of com-

        bining the 2 names of Israel's first patriarch, the Priestly writer found also 

        a ready device for emphasizing an important theological affirmation, poin-

        ting beyond Abraham to Israel's universal mission.

                   The story of Abraham shows a wide range of movement.  Abra-

        ham's family traveled up the ancient, rich Tigris-Euphrates Valley to Haran.

        From there, called by God, Abraham journeyed through Syria into Pale- 

        stine.  After a short time in Egypt, he returned to Palestine, the Land of 

        Promise.  His search for Isaac's wife returns his attention to his origins. 

                   Abraham came into contact with numerous peoples: Chaldeans and 

        West Semitic Amorites (in the East); Canaanites, Perizzites, Hurrians, Ela-

        mites, and Hittites (in Palestine); of course the Egyptians in the West.  

        On a personal level, circling around Abraham is a whole system of people 

        whose keenly delineated characters cast a bright light upon the patriarch:  

        selfish Lot; Sodomites; scoffing son-in-laws; a stubborn wife; desperate 

        daughters; barren, unbelieving Sarah; wronged Hagar; and obedient   

        Isaac.  Further removed, but still shedding light on Abraham's character 

        are the Pharoah, innocent Abimelech, and mysterious Melchizedek.

                   Reading the story of Abraham as one, unified story has distinct me- 

        rit, but behind the story are older stories. The earliest written story comes

        from the Yahwist writer, who in turn used existing tradition, older and youn-

        ger, written and oral, and joined them together into Israel's first great the-

        ological epic.  In the Yahwist part of the story, God told Abram to leave his 

        country and go “to the land that I will show you.”  God promises to make of 

        Abraham a great nation.  All those blessing Abraham God will bless, be-

        yond Abraham's immediate family circle, through Israel to all people. 

                   Abraham's measure of faith was sufficient for his whole family, 

        even Lot. In response to the promise of land and seed, Abraham set out 

        for a land not his own, with a wife who was barren.  At Shechem, Yahweh 

        rewarded Abraham's obedience with a promise of land to his descen-

        dants. Looking at this thriving Canaanite sanctuary, Abraham could ac-

        knowledge Yahweh's ownership of the land only by an act of faith, in the 

        form of building an altar.  The places in scripture where building altars to 

        Yahweh is mentioned may once have explained Yahweh's worship in 

        places that were once non-Israelite shrines; they also show Abraham's 

        piety and habit of worship.  Abraham camped between Bethel and Ai.

                   Abraham no sooner proved himself a faithful believer, than he de-

        serted the Promised Land for Egypt.  This tells a great deal about him.  

        1st, Abraham exhibited a surprising lack of faith by leaving Palestine be-

        cause he didn't believe that Yahweh could fulfill the promise in the face 

        of famine. 2nd, the noble patriarch reached the low point of his morality 

        by deceiving the innocent  Pharaoh about his wife.  3rd, God acted to 

        save and bless his chosen instrument in spite of his lack of faith and his 

        deception.

                   Because strife developed between their herdsmen, Abraham invi-

        ted his nephew Lot to chose the land he wanted.  Lot chose the fertile re- 

        gion of the Jordan basin and settled in Sodom.   Here Abraham's faith 

        stands in stark contrast to his lack of it before.  He could be generous with

        the land because he knew it was already his.   He now received that pro-

        mise that he himself would receive the land, that he should walk about its 

        length and breadth so that he might know it as his own.  Moreover, the 

        great nation from Abraham's loins would be as innumerable as the dust 

        of the earth.  Abraham journeyed south and built an altar at Hebron.

                                         A-5

                   When Abraham stood alone in the land promised to him, Yahweh 

        assured him that he should be greatly rewarded with children.  Abraham 

        couldn't believe it without further assurance; he accused God of impo-

        tence.  Instead of a rebuke, Abraham was promised many children.  Ab-

        raham accepted it in silent faith.  Abraham believed Yahweh.  This was 

        enough for God, who saw Abraham as righteous and worthy.  Yahweh re-

        ferred to past acts as proof of the power to keep the promise.   Abraham 

        still wanted more proof.   Yahweh responded with a covenant, a binding 

        agreement promising land in return for Abraham's faithfulness to Yahweh 

        and to the land.   According to the Yahwist writer, Abraham reaches his 

        highest level here.

                   In spite of God's promise, Sarah remained barren.  She proposed 

        that Abraham go in to her maid, Hagar; when Hagar conceived, hostility 

        arose between the two women.  Abraham evaded his responsibility in 

        the situation by acceding to Sarah's plan, showing a grave lack of trust, 

        and once again falling far short of showing faith after having shown com-

        mendable faith on an earlier occasion.  Ishmael could not be the child 

        long promised, because God's rich blessing stored up for Abraham and 

        Sarah could not happen through a child begotten in faithless impatience. 

                   Yahweh and 2 angels then appeared to Abraham at Mamre, promi-

        sing to return in the spring and that Sarah would have a son well past the 

        time of normal childbearing.  Sarah laughed in derision, rejecting this pos-

        sibility; when confronted, she attempted to deny her doubts.

                   Later, God revealed to Abraham the intention to destroy Sodom.  

        The primary value of this scene is not that Abraham won an argument 

        with God, but that he assumed the role of intercessor and enunciated the 

        possibility of a vicarious salvation, of saving an entire city on behalf of a 

        mere handful of righteous people.  Thus, Abraham became a blessing to 

        other families of the earth.

                   Abraham sent a trusted servant back to the city of Nahor to obtain 

        a wife for Isaac, someone brought up in the “patriarchal god” tradition, and 

        someone other than a heathen Canaanite, thus finding a wife who could 

        worship the God of Abraham and Isaac and sparing Isaac the temptation 

        of a foreign land.  Abraham married Keturah and through her became the 

        father of many peoples.

                   Other traditions about Abraham, either unknown or unused by the 

        Yahwist writer, were collected by the Elohist writer.  These sections give 

        a picture dominated by the question of his faithfulness to God's promise. 

        Abraham showed lack of faith by forsaking Canaan for Philistia.  After 

        having been assured that he would go to his fathers in a peaceful old age, 

        Abraham forsook the Promised Land anyway and dwelt in Gerar and 

        choose to deceive Abimilech about Sarah. Abimilech was found innocent 

        (i. e. of adultery), and Abraham interceded for this heathen king and his 

        household.

                   After Isaac's birth, Sarah still disbelieved that Abraham could pre-

        serve Isaac's inheritance and wanted Ishmael cast out. Isaac should 

        have been a living testimony to God's trustworthiness; instead they were 

        so worried about Isaac's future that, once again in total mistrust, they 

        took matters into their own hands.   These actions were seen as Abraham 

        doing God's will, rather than as wrongful acts that Abraham bore guilt for.

                    The blessing of Abraham by God was evident even to the heathen.  

        Abimilech petitioned the favored patriarch for a treaty.  In God's final test of 

        Abraham, the apparent sacrifice of Isaac, both father and son showed a 

        splendid faith, each in the other and both in God.  In the face of such obe-

        dience, God now solemnly reaffirmed God's promise of innumerable de-

        scendents and possession of the land.

                   The story told by the Priestly writer shows very little tension be-

        tween faith and doubt.  Abraham is a towering figure, dominating the scene 

        around him.  As told here, Abraham left Haran 60 years before his father's 

        death.   When he went to rescue Lot, he appeared as a military hero rou-

        ting a coalition of powerful Eastern kings.  And having a child by Hagar was 

        made somewhat less unfaithful by Abraham waiting 10 years.   Yahweh ap-

        peared to him as "God Almighty" and makes a covenant with Abraham.  

        After a lapse of doubt, Abraham shows obedience by following the ritual of 

        circumcision.  In the purchase of Machpelah as his tomb, he acquired a por-

        tion of the land legally so that he was no longer an heir but an owner.

                   In the rest of the Old Testament, 2 themes link all the early Abraha-

        mic traditions:  God's promise of a multitude of descendants and of land.  

        This was the “God of Abraham,” therefore Israel was the people of the “God

        of Abraham.”  The concept of Abraham as mediator and intercessor receives

        significant expansion.  Israel remembers Abraham as the faithful one for 

        whose sake Israel was blessed.

                               A-6

                   In the New Testament, Abraham was the father of the Israelites, but 

        he becomes the father of all who after receiving the Spirit, share his faith.  

        God swore an oath with Abraham, sealed with promises, but Christians are 

        the children of the promise.  The strongest New Testament picture of Abra-

        ham portrays him as a monumental figure who patiently endured all tests 

        by faith.   Abraham stands rightly as the father of all the faithful and of a 

        multitude of faithful nations.   Faith isn't abstract or easy; it is the hard-won 

        result of a difficult human struggle with recurring doubt and unfaith, a vic-

        tory through God's forgiving grace.

ABRAHAM'S BOSOM.  The place where the good go at the moment of death.

        In the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, the beggar at death is carried 

        there by angels.  This view of a moral division among the dead who dwell 

        in Sheol appeared in Jewish literature in the 1st century A. D.   Older 

        Jewish literature makes no mention of the part of Sheol reserved for the 

        righteous dead.  Rabbinic Judaism sometimes spoke of a rest in Abra-

        ham's bosom in relation to the meal of the blessed in the world to come.  

        In the New Testament, Lukan parable, the metaphor probably indicates a 

        blessed communion of the faithful, as of a parent and child.

    

ABRONAH  (עברנה, pass or passage).  A place where the Israelites camped 

        en route to Ezion-geber.  

  ABSALOM (אבשלום, father in peace).   David's 3rd son whose ambition pre-

        cipitated a serious but short-lived revolt.   Absalom was born in Hebron of 

        Maacah, King Talmai of Geshur's daughter.   His sister was raped by 

        Amnon, first-born of David; he provided sanctuary for her and lured Amnon

        to a feast where Absalom's servants murdered him.  He spent 3 years in 

        exile from Jerusalem until Joab's efforts got him recalled to the city, but left 

        him barred from royal court.   This lasted 2 years until he virtually forced 

        Joab to intercede for him.

                   Once back at court, the ambitious prince began to assert publicly 

        his heir apparent status by displaying all the visible signs of the royal 

        prince; at this point he was the oldest remaining son.  He also began a 

        program of careful subversion of David, by exaggerating the evils of the 

        king's court.  At the end of 4 years, he went to Hebron and had himself 

        proclaimed king.   David was completely surprised by this had to flee from 

        Jerusalem.   David still had support in Jerusalem:  the priests Zadok and 

        Abiathar, and Hushai, David's friend. 

                   Ahithophel counseled Absalom to claim the right to the royal harem 

        and thus widen the break between  David and Absalom beyond repair.  He 

        also asked for 12,000 troops with which to attack and destroy David.  Hu-

        shai persuaded Absalom to personally lead the troops.   In the Ephraim 

        forests, David's seasoned troops, led by Joab, Abishai, and Ittai utterly 

        routed Absalom's army.  Joab slew Absalom while he hanged helplessly 

        tangled in a tree, against David's specific orders.  

                   David broke out in unrestrained grief, so much so that the victory 

        of David's troops was completely overshadowed by the sorrow of the king.  

        He was rebuked by Joab for mourning the death of a traitor instead of ex- 

        pressing his appreciation of his loyal followers.  There is Biblical confusion 

        as to whether Absalom had any male heir.  Maacah, the wife of Rehoboam, 

        is likely the granddaughter of Absalom. 

ABYSS  (αβυσσος ).  A bottomless, unfathomed, and unfathomable deep or 

        underworld.

ACACIA  (שטה, שטים (Shitta, Shittim)).  A tree and its wood.  In all but one

        instance the reference is to the wood used in constructing the Ark of the 

        Covenant.  The hard and very durable orange-brown wood of this tree is

        ideally suited for cabinetmaking.  Some have identified the burning bush 

        with an acacia of a smaller species and the present day source for gum 

        arabic.

           

ACCAD   (אכד).  A city of Shinar (Babylon), listed along with Babel and Erech 

        as forming the original kingdom of Nimrod.  Founded to be the capital of 

        Sargon's Dynasty (around the 2200s and 2100s B.C.), the city seems to 

        have been destroyed with the fall of that dynasty.  Its actual ruins have 

        never been found.

                              A-7

ACCENT, GALILEAN.  Jesus and his disciples spoke Aramaic; but being Gali-

        leans, they spoke a dialect of Aramaic which had its own unique sounds 

        and word uses.   Matthew records that some bystanders identified Peter by 

        his accent.

ACCEPTANCE  (aποδοχη  (ap oh dokh ay)).  1.  By acceptance of the gos-

        pel's message, all will inherit the blessings of the gospel.      2.  Certain 

        acts, such as prayers for others, caring for one’s dependents, acts of cha-

        rity, gifts to a ministry and other “spiritual sacrifices” are seen as accep-

        table to God.     3. The acceptance of officially recognized messengers of

        God is almost the same as accepting God.

   

ACCESS  (προσaγωγη  (pro sag oh gay)).  The privilege of approach or of 

        being introduced, especially to a divine or royal personage (e.g. “in Christ 

        we have boldness and confidence of access through our faith in him.” 

        (Eph. 3.12).

ACCO (עכו). Harbor and city-state in Northern Palestine, north of Mount Car-

        mel on a small coastal plain roughly 6.5 km wide.   At its northern limits, 

        which is the northern border of Palestine, there are mountains falling 

        steeply into the sea.   Protected by the mountains is a natural bay, and

        one of the few good harbors along this coast.

                   Acco is mentioned in an Egyptian curse and several times in the 

        Amarna Letters.  From these it can be seen that Egypt's domination of 

        Acco was not very solidly founded.  Acco was conquered by Thut-moses 

        III, by Seti I in the 1300s B.C., and by Ramses II in the 1200s B.C.  The Is-

        raelite tribe of Asher pressed towards the coast but didn't drive out the in-

        habitants.  In 733, Acco was brought under Assyrian domination by Tiglath-

        pileser III.   In Greek times, Acco was renamed Ptolemais.   In 65 B.C., 

        Ptolemais came under Roman domination; it was in this Roman town that 

        Paul landed on his third voyage. 

ACCURSED (חרם (kheh rem); αναθεμα (a nah the ma)).   Under a curse. 

        The Hebrew word “khehrem” is translated “accursed” in the King James 

        Version; it is translated “devoted thing” in the Revised Standard Version.

ACHAIA  (Αχαια) The Roman province which comprised most of ancient 

        Greece south of Macedonia.  The Achaian League was a confederation in 

        which Corinth was a leader.   They lost to a Roman Army in 146 B.C.  It is 

        probable that by 87 B.C. Achaia was under Roman control and under the

        Macedonian governor's supervision.  In 27 B.C., Achaia was a senatorial 

        province under a pro-consul of praetorian rank. 

                   In 15 A.D., Tiberius combined Achaia with Macedonia; in 44 A.D., 

        Claudius made Achaia and Macedonia separate provinces again.  In 66 or  

        67 A.D., Nero gave freedom to the entire province, but his successor  

        made Achaia into a province again. 

ACHAICUS  (Αχαικος (a kay a kus)).  One of the first Christians at Corinth.  

        Stephanas, Fortunatus, and he probably brought the letter mentioned 

        in I Cor.7.1 to Paul, and carried Paul's answer back (i.e. I Corinthians).  

        It is evident that these three men were on good terms with the apostle.

ACHAN  (עכן, troublesome).  A Judahite who stole forbidden spoil from Jeri-

        cho and, together with his family was stoned.  Israel's lack of military suc-

        cess against the Men of Ai was linked to “stealing spoils dedicated to 

        God.”  The guilt of Achan was detected by lot.  This story stands as vivid 

        evidence of the early Israelite's conception of the guilt of one threatening 

        the security of the whole community, and that the punishment must include

        the whole of Achan's family.

ACHBOR  (עכבור, mouse).  1.  The father of Baal-hanan, king of Edom.      

        2.  One of Josiah's ministers commanded to consult the Lord concerning 

        the newly discovered law book.

ACHISH  (אכיש, the king gives).  The king of Gath with whom David found 

        refuge.   In one account David appears as Achish’s vassal; David was 

        granted the town of Ziklag and appointed chief of Achish's bodyguard.  So 

        sure was Achish of David's loyalty that he took David and his troops with 

        him in his march against Saul.

                             A-8

ACHOR (עכור, trouble).  A valley which formed a portion of the Northern boun-

        boundary of Judah, and the valley where Joshua took Achan, his family, 

        and the goods to be judged and executed for breaking the command to 

        take no booty from Jericho.

ACHSAH  (עﬤסה, ankle ornament).  The daughter of Caleb.  Caleb awarded 

        her to Othniel, his brother or nephew, for the feat of capturing Debir.

ACHSHAPH (אכשף, incantation). A border town in the territory of Asher, loca-

        ted about 9.6 km southeast of present day Acco. Achshaph was an old 

        town when the Israelites entered Palestine under Joshua.  The Canaanite 

        town was destroyed after its king joined a confederacy against Joshua and 

        suffered defeat.

ACHZIB  (אכזיב, deceitful).  1.  A town on the border of the Shephelah and 

        central Judah.      2.  A town in Galilee on the seashore, near Lebanon's    

        border,  about 14.4km north of Acre.  The town bordered on the territory 

        of Asher; it may have been assigned to that tribe.

ACRABA  (Εγρεβελ (eg re bel)).  A place some 40 km north of Jerusalem, 

        within a few miles of Sychar's well.

ACROSTIC  Poetic composition in which the first letters of successive lines ap-

        pear in alphabetical order.   The outstanding Old Testament example is 

        Psalm 119, with its 22 sections.   The 1st section contains 8 lines, all be-

        ginning with the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet; the 2nd section has 8 

        lines beginning with the second letter and so on for all 22 sections.

                   The New Testament example is the "ichthys" (ΙΧΘΥΣ). The letters 

        spell fish and stand for “Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior.”  They were 

        used largely as teaching aids in spelling, style, and memorization.

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES.  The 5th book in the New Testament (NT) after the 

        4 gospels.  It was originally written as a sequel to the Gospel according to 

        Luke; it is an invaluable source for a knowledge of the apostolic age. The 

        title we know it by is not altogether accurate, and was given to what once 

        was a section of a larger work.

                   List of Topics—1. The Story: Disciples and Paul;      

       2. The Story: Movement Name, its Nucleus and "Organiza-

       tion";     3. The Story: Chronology, and Omissions;    

       4. Materials of Acts;     5. Author’s Sources, Contributions, 

       and Motives;     6.  Author’s Style;     7. Date, Place, and 

       History of Writing

                   1. The Story: Disciples and Paul—Acts  begins with an account of

        Jesus' appearance to his disciples after his resurrection.  The encounter is

        definitely concluded after some 40 days by the ascension of Jesus.  His dis-

        ciples are endowed with the Spirit at Pentecost, 50 days after Easter.  The 

        stories follow in roughly chronological sequence and close at what seems to 

        the modern reader a somewhat strange point.  The last verses tell how Paul, 

        after going through the ordeal of the Roman legal process, spent 2 years in 

        Roman custody.   The divisions into paragraphs and chapters isn't the work 

        of the original author, but were added later for convenience sake.  

                   It begins with Jesus' friends who had come up with him from Galilee 

        to Jerusalem.  2 promises were made:  1st, that Jesus would return in a way

        similar to his ascension; 2nd, that he would send the Holy Spirit upon them.

        More emphasis is placed on the Spirit-gift because it becomes after its be-

        stowal the energizing force in the group, leading Peter to visit Cornelius, 

        and Phillip to intercept the Ethiopian.  Many Christian communities must 

        have been the result of more obscure and anonymous members being wil-

        ling to spread the word and plant the seeds of communities. 

                   Only with the missionary work of Paul are we able to see deliberate   

        human planning, and the conversion of Paul is one of the most dramatic 

        events, because he had been one of the most vigorous persecutors of 

        Christians.  The author is concerned to show thereafter both Paul's vigo-

        rous ministry and the persistence of his legal battle.  Quite different is the    

        story of his pioneering missionary work in Cyprus and Galatia.  He was ac-

        companied by associates and/or assistants, like Barnabas and John Mark 

        or Silas and Timothy.  He often made his first appeal at the local Jewish 

        synagogue; almost always the Jews rebuffed him, or incited hostile action 

        against him.  So he used other opportunities for public or private instruction.

 

                                    A-9

                   2. The Story: Movement Name, its Nucleus and "Organization" 

        The movement does not readily acquire a set name for itself.  “Christianity” 

        and “Christians” was a nickname applied by others.  The terms “disciples” 

        and “saints” were used to describe the rank and file members.  Another         

        noteworthy expression was “the way of the Lord,” or simply “the Way.”   

        Acts barely begins to disclose any organization or rules of the church and it 

        does so in a most unsystematic manner.  

                   In the time of Acts, the “church” was a party in Judaism and did not 

        need to distinguish itself from the parent body.  In the author's view it was 

        not only a legitimate development, but the fruition of God's plan.  Its spokes-

        men and more spontaneous leaders were prophets and teachers.  There 

        was a group of rank and file who had a voice in decisions; there was a 

        group of apostles, as well as a group of elders at Jerusalem.   Ultimately

        there emerged as a leader of this church James, presumably the brother of 

        Jesus.   His introduction is as abrupt as is the exit of Peter.

                   Just as these references do not presuppose a rigid and uniform 

        church organization, so the book gives no impression of uniform standards 

        or procedures about membership or worship.  Meetings were evidently held 

        more than once a week.  Bread is broken, but not necessarily as anything 

        other than the usual meal. Converts are expected to repent of their past of-

        fenses and to receive the Holy Spirit.  There are puzzling references to the

        gospel's contrasting John the Baptist's water baptism with the Spirit's bapti-

        zing of the faithful.  Nothing is said of systematic instruction of converts or

        of subsequent discipline.

                   The chief exception is the group of passages suggesting mutual 

        care and sharing. This took the form of those who had it to spare selling 

        property, and to give the proceeds to the apostles for use among the needy. 

        Many were widows, to whom distribution was made daily.   Financial relief 

        for the poor among the Judean believers was brought to their elders at the 

        time of the famine under Claudius by Barnabas and Saul (Paul).  It is clear 

        by this that care and prayerful concern was felt by the believers for each 

        other. 

                   From early in the book a wide geographical outlook is hinted at and 

        assumed.  The church's nucleus at the beginning is not only at Jerusalem 

        but is also naturally enough, exclusively Jewish.  Each new step beyond 

        this nucleus (e.g. Samaritans, Romans, and Gentile converts further and 

        further from Jerusalem) is consciously reviewed and approved.  

                   Certainly outside of Jerusalem there are frequent references in the 

        book of Acts to “God fearers” or “God worshipers.” (Gentiles already 

        loosely attached to Judaism, though not full proselytes).  They attended 

        the synagogue services, and had presumably been attracted by Judaism’s 

        monotheism, or ethical idealism. The author emphasizes the transition 

        from Jewish to Gentile Christianity, that it occurred under God’s guidance

        and with the approval of church leaders, especially Peter.

                  3. The Story:  Chronology, and Omissions— The author wasn’t 

        very concerned about chronology.   He was aware of political characters, 

        Jewish or Roman, and of the various forms of governments, but they are 

        part of his background and local color.  He does mention some historical 

        events, but a specific date can't always be stated with certainty.  

                   In the first part of Acts there is less certainty of time sequence, as  

        the author keeps going back to events already mentioned, while in the latter

        part where he follows the career of Paul, he is fully aware of the order of     

        events. In fact, the arrangement of Acts, like that of the gospels, suggests 

        that other considerations than the historical sequence of events may have 

        affected the order of the narratives.   Stories are grouped around a parti-

        cular person or group of people.  Also, the author seems to proceed along 

        geographical lines.

                    The author's omissions may be deliberate choices due to his inte-

        rests, but they may also be due to his limited knowledge.  We hear nothing 

        individual about the 12 except Peter, and only about 2 of the 7 ordained 

        “assistants,” Phillip and Stephen.  Also, final references to Paul and Peter

        leave their stories   somehow incomplete.  The main parallel to Acts is 

        what little data is found in Paul's letters.  Paul’s account of what happened 

        to him and when, includes much which is absent in the book of Acts, and 

        the sequence doesn't always match. In the case of contradictions, Paul's 

        account must take precedence. 

                   4. Materials of Acts—The information offered in the early parts of  

        Acts consists of detached episodes, complete in themselves and each with 

        its own meaning.  Running through them is the belief that God has re-

        vealed his power  and guidance to the ongoing spread of Christianity. They 

        have been shortened down to only what was needed to make the episode 

        clear.  Dating isn't attempted, but the personal names of those taking part 

        are kept. 

                             A-10

                   Between episodes, there are brief statements that summarize and 

        indicate that there are many more events like the one just mentioned, and 

        that the word of God increased and that converts were multiplied.  In the 

        earlier part of Acts they turn unconnected fragments into a more flowing 

        narrative; they are less frequent and necessary in the latter part of Acts.

                   Speeches occupy a substantial proportion of the book of Acts, be-

        tween one-third and one-quarter.  The longest ones are those of Peter: at 

        Pentecost; at Solomon's Portico; before the Sanhedrin; at the house of 

        Cornelius; and to the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem. The speech of 

        Stephen to his accusers is the  longest of all.  Paul’s speeches are the 

        most numerous and the most varied; they  are all defenses at various 

        hearings. 

                   The speeches were used effectively in the narrative to indicate 

        the content of the movement, its ideas and claims.  The gospel that the 

        apostles preached is different from what Jesus had emphasized.  The 

        speeches interpret the narrative as much as the chorus does in a Greek 

        tragedy.  They repeat what the narratives have told, and what the missio-

        naries used as their message.  From the speeches alone the theologian 

        finds matter for his interest.  Their total impact has been influential far be-

        yond the proportion of space they take up in this book. Otherwise the 

        book belongs to the historian.

                   The apostolic message may be summarized from the speeches as: 

        The past preaching of repentance by Jesus following John's ministry was 

        vindicated by God's resurrection of Jesus; bearing witness to the resurrec-

        tion involves a continued call to repentance and a warning of future judg-

        ment. The Jesus whom the disciples preach was designated by God as 

        Lord and Christ or Messiah.  The God who thus vindicates himself for 

        those who may by the Scripture compare promise with fulfillment hasn't left 

        himself without an inward witness of our  search for God (i.e. the Spirit). 

                   Asserting that Jesus was the Christ is the result of the efforts of 

        those who knew Christ trying to figure out how to think of Jesus.  In their 

        discussion with Jews, the apostles try to prove  the expected Messiah is 

        Jesus and not the reverse. In Acts, the ethical implications of repentance 

        aren't spelled out at all.  The death of Jesus has little significance here.  

        It is mentioned, not as a way of God's grace, but as evidence of human 

        sin.  The author of Acts doesn't require obedience to the Old Testament 

        Law by Gentiles, but he does show the Jewish Christians as loyal to its 

        requirements.

                   5.  Author’s Sources, Contributions, and Motives—This author 
        has used “eyewitnesses and ministers of the Word.” We can't tell which 

        episodes were created by the author from those witnesses, and which the

        author took from written accounts that already existed. Some of his sour-

        ces were early Greek writings, while others were originally Aramaic and 

        given orally.   The author was most likely familiar with the Greek transla-

        tion of the Old Testament, and likely used familiar Greek phrases in his 

        writing. The degree of continuity in the part of Acts devoted to Paul sug-

        gests that the writer had access to a continuous source. The other possi-

        bility is that much of this part is autobiographical, as evidenced by the 

        use of the “we” pronoun; there is no conclusive evidence either way.

                   As to the narratives found in Acts, part of the author's role may
        have been in the mere selection of his material. Some of the features of
        Acts may be the personal viewpoint of the author, rather than an objective
        presentation of eyewitness accounts. Clearly, the author of Acts made a
        personal contribution to it: the language he chose; the terms he used; the
        way he varied his style and used spellings and expressions appropriate to
        the setting in which each episode took place ( e.g. a Palestinian versus a
        Gentile setting). In the first 2 chapters there is a more biblical style, while   
        the scenes in Athens or elsewhere reflect a more secular and Greek style.
                   Some suspect that much of the speeches’ content attributed to 

        others may be the author's attempt to recreate a viewpoint not quite his 

        own, based on recollections that would most likely not be remembered as 

        accurately or preserved as faithfully as would the words of Jesus. Certain-

        ly the speeches in their present form seem to be addressed more to the 

        reading audience rather than the audience depicted at the scene of the 

        speech.  

                   Indeed for the book as a whole, there is perhaps more than one 

        audience in mind.  Like Luke’s gospel, this book is addressed to “Theophi-

        lus (friend of God)”; it was a common name given to Jews or Gentiles, Ro-

        mans or Christians.   Perhaps this person was someone influential in 

        whom the author would like to not convert, but to promote tolerance to-

        wards Christianity.  Writing to an individual was really a mark of publication

        for a wider public, the average member of which might be quite different 

        from the addressee. 

                                  A-11

      

                    The book of Acts is somewhat of an apologia for the Christian move- 

        ment.  Luke’s gospel before it convincingly portrays the founder's excellent 

        character; the book of Acts pursues the later movement step by step, sho-

        wing how God's favor had blessed and sanctioned Christianity.  The most 

        immediate purpose of the volume may have been to counter possible hos-

        tility from the Roman government.  Whenever the officials do take hostile ac-

        tion, it is because of Jewish pressure.  Most Gentiles were aloof from Juda-

        ism, if not positively hostile to it; but it was officially tolerated by the Roman 

        government.  The book of Acts implies that they recognized the Jewish-

        Christian quarrels as family matters and not relevant to Roman authority.

                   6. Author’s Style—There is no doubt that the same author wrote 

        both the gospel of Luke and the book of Acts.  They share a common dedi-

        cation, and a common and hard-to-copy style.   What variations there are

        between the 2 do not point to a different author, but rather different con-

        tent, emphases, and motives.    And there can be no doubt that Acts pre-

        sents Christianity as the legitimate fulfillment of Judaism. Jesus is the pro-

        mised prophet like Moses.  There is an important difference between what

        the author has learned, and what the author wants us to learn and believe.

        The author was not a partisan, nor was he trying to win over anyone.  He 

        merely reflects the picture of events as they appeared to him at his later 

        time. 

                   The book's contents suggest that it was written out of the sheer in-

        terest in the story.  The story told by him satisfies his Christian preferences 

        and is likely to have a favorable effect on the impartial reader.  The fact 

        that we cannot tell if the author's intent was historical, educational, and/or

        self-expression, fits neatly into the traditional view that this was an inspired 

        work and therefore not to be explained along purely human lines.  We can 

        only make plausible assumptions about the author's special interests. 

                   The compiler was fully sympathetic with the Christian movement, its 

        successes and its difficulties. But he may have emphasized certain things, 

        glossed over others, or been unconcerned with some features and events 

        in his sources. The author shares the early Christian view that events in 

        the movement's history fulfill the predictions and hints found in scripture. 

        He freely interchanges the terms “God” and  “Lord.”  “Holy Spirit” is a theo- 

        logical term closely associated with God and almost inter-changeable in 

        function.

                   But the mention of the Holy Spirit has a wider meaning in the early 

        church  than it does in the common Jewish use of the term as the inspirer 

        of past scriptures.  For them, it is a vivid, contemporary experience.  The 

        writer plays down the more urgent features of expectancy of the last days. 

        The Christian message's joy is a prominent feature of Luke and Acts.  The 

        book of Acts only partly shares the gospel's description of the blessings 

        that are intended for those of low degree.  

                   It is throughout vindication of Gentile Christianity and criticism of the

        Jews for their stubborn rejection or even opposition.  The wealthy or soci-

        ally elite are represented as favorable to Christianity.  There is an abun-

        dance of references to the governmental or other local data and nearly a 

        hundred personal names are given for government officials. The mention 

        of officials seems to reflect the author's awareness of the official situation.

                   This writer is doing a formal treatise; he approximates in fact the 

        Greek ways of writing for the sake of both beautiful writing and history.  

        The style of these two volumes is more cultivated than that of most Greek 

        writings.  The writer follows the rules of correct Greek more than other 

        writers.  Luke and Acts uses the first person singular and plural more than 

        the New Testament's (NT) other parts.  These volumes' content points to 

        a distinctive, creative personality, and to someone who is much more than 

        a mere collector of data. It's best not to try to identify the writer from 

        among the few persons of the period known to us.

                  7. Date, Place, and History of Writing—We do not know a set date 

       for the writing of Luke or Acts.   We only know it used Mark, as a source. 

       Acts may not have known of or used Paul's letters.   Acts relates events 

       up to about 60 A.D., but it could have been written years later, as late as 

       80 A. D. or even later.   There is a large number and variety of hypothe-

       ses, from it being a legal brief for Paul, to it being written in the early 100s

        to combat a particular heresy.

                    The 1st mention of Acts was around 180 A.D. in several places. 

        More than most NT books, its copying was done with such freedom that 

        by the end of the 100s, at least 2 forms of the text were in existence. 

        Among the books of the NT canon, it held a unique position as a bridge 

        between the gospels and Paul's letters. 

                   We can't be sure with how much authority the name Luke was at-

        tached to the author of this once anonymous work.  Luke is mentioned as 

        being with Paul, and along these lines the ancient Christians may have 

        satisfied their curiosity about this author's name.  We cannot be sure whe-

        ther the author was a companion of Paul or not. 

 

                           A-12

      

                   The author had extensive knowledge of Paul, but some of what is 

        said about Paul in Acts does not reconcile with Paul's letters.  Normally an 

        anonymous book would be associated with an apostle, as the other gos-

        pels were.  Since Luke isn't an apostle, this lends some credence that this 

        is the author's name and not a popular assumption.  The handwriting and 

        copying of the book of Acts introduced many variations in the text's exis-

        ting copies.  The 2 main copies are labeled the Neutral and the Western

        Text; of the 2 the Neutral Text is the more likely to represent the original.

ADADAH.  (עדעדה, festival).  A city in the southeast part of Judah, near the 

        border of Edom, perhaps 14.4 km southeast of Beer-sheba.

ADAH (עדה, ornament).   1.  The first of 2 wives of Lamech; the mother of 

        Jabal  and Jubal.     2.  Wife of Esau; the mother of Eliphaz.  Adah is iden-

        tified  as the daughter of Elon the Hittite.

ADAIAH  (עדיה, Yahweh has adorned himself).  1.  The maternal grandfather 

        of King Josiah.      2.  A Levite and ancestor of Asaph.      3.  One of the 

        sons of Shimei in the genealogy of Benjamin.      4.  One of the priests who

        returned to Jerusalem  after the exile.      5.  The father Maaseiah, one of

        the army officers who aided in the overthrow of Athaliah.  6.  2 men listed as 

        having married foreign wives in the time of Ezra.     7.  An ancestor of one of 

        the Judahites living in Jerusalem.

ADALIA (אדליא, honorable).  The fifth son of Haman (Esther 9).

ADAM  (אדם, man).  The first man, from whom all humankind is descended.  

        He was driven from the Garden of Eden because of his disobedience.  The 

        word occurs over 500 times in the Old Testament with the meaning “man” 

        or “mankind.”  This generic term is used only rarely as a proper name for 

        the 1st man. In Genesis 1-5, the text goes back and forth between generic 

        term, sometimes with “the” in front of it, and proper name.

                   The choice of the generic term indicates the biblical writers' inten-    

        tion to portray, not just the story of one man, but the universal history of 

        humankind.   Only humans are created in God’s image to rule the earth.  

        The Priestly Writer describes human creation on the 6^th day along with the 

        animals.  The creation of a single pair is implied with identifying Adam with  

        the human race's creation.  

                   The Yahwist writer pictures Yahweh Elohim forming man while the

        earth is still unfruitful.  The man is placed in the Garden of Eden with full 

        freedom of action except in respect to the Tree of Knowledge and The Tree

        of Life.  The man names the animals in determining their role; he finds none 

        suitable for his mate. Later Yahweh appears to punish the woman with the

        pain of childbirth, and to curse man with toiling in the soil. 

                  Adam as the first man appears twice in the New Testament in a histo-

        rical connection.  The genealogy of Jesus is traced backed to Adam in Luke. 

        Adam appears again in Paul's letters; women are to be subordinate to men 

        because Adam was created before Eve and because the woman was de-

        ceived into sinning.  By far the most important references appear where 

        Adam is made a type of Christ.  Death entered the world through the sin of

        Adam.  Adam is a type of the coming one because of the similarity in the 

        total effect of one man's action on all of humanity.   Adam's act of disobedi-

        ence brought condemnation and death.  Nowhere does Paul state the man-

        ner by which Adam's sin is transmitted to his posterity.

                    The Adam-Christ typology is used to illustrate the certainty of the 

        resurrection.  Adam and Christ are the “heads” of the old and the new hu-

        manity.  Adam is the source of death, while Christ is the source of life.  

        Each type of humanity joins itself to one of them, either in life or death.  

        Paul found the language of the first and the last Adam useful in describing 

        his opposition to saying that the soul needed no body, or that the resurrec-

        tion body was of flesh and blood.  The new body was to be a new, spiritual 

        one.

                   See also the entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha / Intertestamen-

        tal section of the Appendix.

ADAM  (CITY)  A city East of the Jordan in the Plains of Moab, near Jericho.  It 

        was here the waters of the Jordan were dammed so that Joshua and the 

        Israelites could pass over dry-shod.

  

                             A-13

                

ADAMAH  (אדמה, land)  A fortified city in Naphtali’s territory, possibly to the 

        southwest of the Sea of Galilee.

     

ADAMANT  (שמיר (sha mir))  An imaginary stone of impenetrable hard-

        ness; a poetic expression for hardness.

ADAMI-NEKEB  (אדמי הנקב)  A border town in Naphtali, probably located 8 

        km SW of the Sea of Galilee, commanding a pass on a caravan route.

ADAR  (אדר, glorious)  The twelfth month in the Hebrew calendar (March-April).

ADBEEL  (אדבאל)  Third son of Ishmael, and the name of an Arabian tribe in 

        northwestern Arabia.

ADDAR   (אדר)  A fortress city on the southwest border of Judah. 

ADDER (פתן; צפע; צפﬠני (peh then; tseh fah; tsif o nee)) General terms for 

        any of several poisonous and nonpoisonous snakes.

ADDI  (Αδδι )  An ancestor of Jesus.

ADIEL  (עדיאל, an ornament is El)    1.  A Simeonite prince in the time of 

        Hezekiah.     2.  A priest whose son Maasai returned from exile.     3.  The 

        father of Azmaveth, who was in charge of the royal treasuries in Jerusa-

        lem under David.

ADIN (עדין, voluptuous)  The ancestor of some Jewish exiles returning with 

        Zerubbabel or with Ezra (Ezra 2, 8)

ADINA  (עדינא, pliant)  The son of Shiza; a Reubenite leader listed among 

        the Mighty Men of David.

ADINO  (עדינו)  English form of Hebrew letters in an unintelligible phrase, 

        found in II Sam. 23.8.

ADITHAIM   (עדיתים)  A town in the Shephelah in the territory of Judah.

ADLAI  (עדלי, justice of God)  The father of Shaphat, royal shepherd of David.

ADMAH  (אדמה, ground, region)  One of the cities of the valley destroyed 

        along with Sodom because of its wickedness.  Admah may be located 

        under the waters of the bay at the south end of the Dead Sea.

ADMATHA (אדמתא) One of the seven princes of Media and Persia, member

        of King Ahasuerus' council; he advised the banishment of Queen Vashti.

ADMIN  (Αδμιν)  An ancestor of Jesus.

ADNA  (עדנא)  1.  A Priest who returned from exile with Zerubbabel.     

        2.  An exiled Israelite with foreign wives.

ADNAH  (עדנה)  1.  Judahite commander during Jehoshaphat's reign.     

        2. Manassite deserter from Saul to David.

ADONAI  (אדני, Lord)  A title of honor and majesty applied to God and used as 

        a substitute for the sacred name of Yahweh.

ADONI-BEZEK (אדני בזק)  Apparently a Canaanite king of Jerusalem.  He 

        was defeated and mutilated during campaigns of the tribe of Judah to con-

        quer territory in Canaan.  He was captured and subjected to the same 

        amputation of thumbs and big toes that he practiced on prisoners.

                                     A-14

ADONI-ZEDEK  (אדני־צדק, my lord is righteousness)  King of Jerusalem and 

        leader of a 5-king coalition, defeated by Joshua in battle at Gibeon when 

        Joshua came to Gibeon's aid and routed the coalition.  The five Amorite 

        kings were captured in a cave at Makkedah, where they had taken shelter, 

        and were put to death.

      

ADONIJAH (אדניה, Yahu is the Lord)  1.  Haggith’s son and David’s 4th son. 

        His regal aspirations brought destruction upon himself. Adonijah was the 

        eldest living prince; David did not discourage his ambitions, not even when 

        he equipped himself with a princely cortege.  David promised the throne to 

        Solomon, but this was not taken seriously.  Adonijah prepared a royal, sa-

        crificial feast at which to be proclaimed king.  The prophet Nathan and So-

        lomon's mother Bathsheba secured Solomon’s succession and had him 

        anointed.  Adonijah sought asylum by the altar and would not leave until 

        he got a promise to spare his life.  He then committed treason in Solomon's

        eyes by asking for Abishag, a part of the royal harem; he was executed.

                   2. A Levite who instructed the people of Judah in the law in the 3rd 

        year of Jehosophat's reign.

                   3. A chief of the people who set his seal to the covenant of reform in 

   Ezra's time.

ADONIKAM  (אדניקם, my Lord has arisen)  The head of one of the families 

        that returned to Jerusalem from Babylonia after the Exile.

ADONIRAM  (אדנירם, the Lord is exalted)  The son of Abda; a high official in 

        the courts of David, Solomon, and Rehoboam, in charge of the forced labor

        expected from Israel's people.  Rehoboam attempted to use forced labor; 

        Adoniram was stoned by the people when he tried to enforce it.

ADONIS  (Αδωνις)  The Syrian deity of vegetation which wilted with summer 

        sun. The death of the god was mourned by the women of Phoenicia.

ADOPTION  (υιοθεσια (hwee oth es ee ah); placing or making a son (adop-

        tion)) This word's theological importance is that it describes the Christian 

        status of sonship as a vivid reality while pointing to its secondary and 

        derived nature in contrast to the direct sonship of Christ himself.

                   No laws of adoption are found formulated in the Old Testament 

        (OT). Hebrews could transfer rights from one member of the family to 

        another.  While there is evidence of adoption in ancient Semitic civiliza-

        tion, it is seldom alluded to in the OT.  The OT speaks of Israel as God's 

        son, a status not necessary and inherent, but the result of a gracious act on 

        the part of God.

                   It is perhaps to emphasize this fact that Paul uses the word.  Adop-

        tion is regarded by Paul as a promise for the future not realized; it might 

        also be argued that this word is used instead of son.  Our adoption as sons 

        is here a measure of the greatness of God's love, because we were once 

        slaves, and because a slave adopted as a son inherits his master's proper-

        ty.  And the Spirit bearing witness with our spirit, suggests the witnesses 

        required in Roman law to the act of adoption.  Thus, where the Fourth Gos-

        pel and I Peter use terms of regeneration, Paul uses this legal figure of 

        adoption.  Christians look forward to the future enjoyment of their inheri-

        tance, when the victorious will be given the messianic status of sons of 

        God.

ADORAIM  (אדורים, 2 threshing floors)  A city of Judah identified with today's 

        Dura, 8 km west-southwest of Hebron.  It was among the 15 cities fortified 

        by Rehoboam, king of Judah. 

ADORATION   Literally, the act of bringing the hand or fingers to the lips in 

        praise; more generally the giving of divine honors.

ADRAMMELECH  (ךאדרמל, the lordship of Melech) A deity worshiped by 

        the people of Sepharvaim.      2.  A son of Sennacherib who murdered his 

        father in the temple of Nisroch.

ADRAMYTTIUM  (Aδραmυttοςν)  A seaport of Mysia; it was founded by the 

        Lydians, but belonged later to the Mysians. Towards the end of Acts it is 

        said that Paul embarked on a ship from here to go to Rome.   

                                    A-15

 

ADRIA  (Aδριας)  The sea between Italy and Greece.  It got its name from a 

        town called Atria or Hadtria on what is now the Gulf of Venice.  It has long 

        been known for stormy waves and winds.  It was a stormy easterly wind 

        that drove Paul's Rome-bound ship from Cauda some 723 km to the shores

        of Malta.

ADRIEL  (עדריאל, flock of God)  Barzillai's Son; Merab's husband, the daugh-

        ter of Saul.

ADULLAM  (עדלם, retreat, refuge)  A royal Canaantite city in the Shephelah.   

        The ruins are about 17.1 km  east-northeast of Biet Jibrin.  The king of 

        Adullam was one of 31 Canaanite kings listed as defeated by Joshua 

        during the Israelite occupation.  David took refuge from Saul and used

        as a temporary head-quarters a cave near Adullam.  Adullam may have 

        been one of 46 fortified cities Sennacherib captured during his 701 B.C. 

        campaign.  Jewish returnees from the Exile reoccupied Adullam along 

        with other cities.

ADULTERY  (נאף (nee oof))  Adultery was not so much evidence of moral de-

        pravity as the violation of the husband's right to have sole sexual posses-

        sion of his wife and to have the assurance the his children were his own.  

        Intercourse with a slave who was betrothed to another was not a capital 

        offense—only a guilt offering was needed.  In other cases, both parties 

        involved in adulterous intercourse were to be killed.  “Adultery” is used of 

        religious disloyalty; faithless Jews are called offspring of the adulteress 

        and the harlot.  While upholding the law against adultery, Jesus refused 

        to condemn the woman taken in adultery.  

ADUMMIM  (אדמים, red rocks)  A pass leading from the Jordan Valley into 

        the hill country, used to go from Jericho to the city-state of Jerusalem.  

        Maledomni was a fortress midway between Jericho and Jerusalem.  

        Today it is known as the "Inn of the Good Samaritan."

ADVENTURESS  (נכרי (nok ree), stranger, foreigner)  A woman who lives by 

        her wits and her sex, often used with “harlot.”

ADVOCATE.   Christ is man's advocate with the Father; he is the living “means 

        of making amends for our sins,” He is the representative of us to God.

AENEAS  A man at Lydda whom Peter cured of the palsy.

AENON (עינון, double spring)  A site rich in water where John the Baptist was 

        active. It could be in Perea beyond (east of) the Jordan. Or it could be 

        west of the Jordan, south of Beth-shean.  Places near Beth-shean today 

        have names much like the New Testament names mentioned as being 

        close to Aenon.

AEON  (αιον)  The term used in the primary Greek Old Testament and in the 

        New Testament for a “long span of time,” “eternity,” “world's age,” used to 

        describe both this age or aeon, and the coming age or aeon.

AESORA (Αισωρα) A city grouped with Choba and Salem valley, identified 

        with Hazor of Joshua's time.

AGABUS  (Αγαβος )  A Christian prophet from Judea who had a charism and 

        spoke “by the Spirit.”  Agabus went with other prophets from Jerusalem to 

        Antioch and foretold a famine “over all the world.”  There was a famine in 

        Judea around 46-47 A. D. Agabus predicts that Paul will be “bound” by the 

        Jews and handed over to Gentiles—a prophecy not precisely fulfilled.

AGAG  (אגג)  An Amalekite king, defeated by Saul, and put to death by Samu-

        el. Saul's battle against the Amalekites under Agag was the occasion for 

        his decisive split with Samuel.  Saul disobeyed the directive to destroy all 

        Amalekites and their property.  The theological description of Saul's disobe- 

        dience and resultant loss of the kingship bears close resemblance to the 

        story of man's disobedience and expulsion from Eden.    

                                    A-16

AGAGITE (אגגי)  Agag's descendants, probably a reference to King Agag of 

        Amalek, ancient enemy of Israel.

AGAPE  (αγαπη)  1. The English form of Greek letters for one of the 

        Greek words for “love.”    

                   2.  The name commonly used to denote the “love feasts,” meals 

        provided by church members for religious fellowship in the earliest days 

        of the church.  The evidence for these meals is the problems they had 

        telling the difference between the agape and the Lord's supper.  The 

        agape meal for fellowship and charity was generally held in the after-

        noon or evening.  By the mid-100s, it had been definitely separated from 

        association with the sacramental rite of the Lord's Supper. 

                   The customs that go with the Christian agapes stem originally 

        from the table observances of Jewish families, especially at sabbath and 

        festival celebrations. The family would gather for supper, before sundown,

        at home or in a suitable house.  After hors d'oeuvres and wine, the com-

        pany reclined or sat at table for the meal.  The family head would  pro-

        nounce a benediction over the bread, which was then broken and passed 

        around.  On sabbath, after sundown, grace was said over a cup of bles- 

        sing with special remembrance before God of God's providence and a  

        prayer for the fulfillment of God's purpose.

                  Highly organized and disciplined Jewish associations, such as the 

        Essenes, made much of these meals in the promotion of the common life.  

        Before every meal, the priest blessed the first portion of the bread and the 

        wine.  Candidates for admission to the community weren't allowed to par-

        ticipate in these common meals until they had passed a 2-year novitiate.

             Gatherings of early Christian disciples exhibit practices that resem-

        ble those of Jewish sects. The most detailed accounts of the agape come 

        only from the end of the 100s, and show the Jewish origins of the obser-

        vance.  During the meal, time was devoted to preaching, prophesying and

        speaking in tongues, teaching, exhortation, and singing.  All these devo-

        tions were related to the act of “thanksgiving.”  A uniquely Christian em-

        phasis was given to the table fellowship by its association with charitable 

        gifts and provisions for widows.  

                   Rules for the church's common meals provide a thanksgiving over 

        the cup and bread and for the food after the meal, with a petition for the 

        coming of the kingdom, but no memorial to the Lord's passion and death.   

        special form of agape developed in the 100s and was derived from pagan 

        customs.  There were funeral and anniversary banquets connected with 

        the memory of departed Christians.  The oldest Christian cemeteries have

        special chambers where these memorial meals were celebrated.  Some 

        the earliest Christian art is pictures of these events.

AGATE  ( a.) שבו (sheb oh); b.)כדכד (kad kod); c.) Χαλκηδων (chal ke don)  

        A quartz with more or less concentric bands, generally white and brown.

        (a.) A stone in the breastplate of the judgment in Exodus 28 and 39.     

        (b.)  In Isaiah 54, this is the material of the pinnacles of Jerusalem.

        (c.)  The jewel in the foundation of New Jerusalem's walls in Revelation.

AGE  An expression often not sharply defined, for “a long time”; it is used to 

       translate the Greek “aeon.”

AGE, OLD  (זקן (za ken))  Old age in the Bible is the reward for the good life 

        and a sign of wisdom; the aged command respect.  Allusions to the physi-

        cal symptoms of old age are frequent (e.g. the gray hairs of Abraham and 

        Sarah when they had Issac; David suffering chills and needing another's 

        warmth). 

                   The ages of the patriarchs are given as: Abraham, 175 years; Isaac, 

        180; Jacob, 147; Joseph, 110.  The age of Moses at his death is given by 

        tradition as 120 and still going strong.  If normally a man attained the age 

        of 70 or 80, it is probable that he showed signs of age at 60.  This helps 

        explain the use of 60 as the dividing line between mature and aged.

                  The respect to be given the aged is similar to that which is given to 

        one's parents  (“Remember the days of old, consider the years of many 

        generations; ask your father, and he will show you; your elders, and they 

        will tell you” (Deut. 32.7)).  The old man isn't necessarily to be equated 

        with the elder, who occupied an official position in biblical society, though

        indeed the experience and wisdom of the older man would fit him for the 

        responsibilities of the elder.  In the beliefs of what will happen at the end 

        time, a return to the state of quasi-immortality talked of in the Bible is 

        expected.    

                                    A-17

AGEE (אגא)  The father of Shammah, who is named third among the “3” of 

        David's high command.

AGIA  (Αγια)  Jaddus’ wife, ancestor of a family of unregistered pretending 

        priests at the return from Exile.

AGONY   The term is used especially in connection with Jesus' suffering and 

        struggle in Gethsemane.

AGORA  (αγορα; to bring together) The assembly place or market place, 

        like those in Athens and Corinth.

AGRAPHA (αγραφα; unwritten things)  A term used for sayings that some 

        think are from Jesus, but are not recorded in the gospels.  Many collec-

        tions have been made of this material, which can be short aphoristic utter-

        ances or lengthy sayings. Many see them as genuine and see their source 

        in an early oral gospel from which our canonical gospels drew heavily but 

        did not use in its entirety.

                    Many of the sayings are simply amplifications, variations, or combi-

        nations of words that are used in the canonical gospels.  Several of these 

        agrapha occur in isolated copies of gospel manuscripts.  Paul was known 

        to quote Jesus in several places in his letters, and used phrases which 

        don't appear in the gospels.  The great majority of the agrapha come from 

        apocryphal writings.

AGRICULTURE  The art of farming, including the tools and methods used and 

        the difficulties which the farmer faces. From prehistoric times to the pre-

        sent day, the people of Palestine have been mostly farmers. Excavations 

        on the West edge of Mount Carmel reveal clear evidence of agriculture in 

        the Mesolithic period (around 8000-7000 B. C).  Tools for harvesting grain

        were found in curved bone handles that had grooves into which flints could 

        be fitted in the form of a sickle. Evidence of mortar and pestles also give 

        rise to the inference that these people made flour of the wheat or millet.

                   Industry and commerce have seldom made up a large percentage 

        of the income of the inhabitants of Palestine.  They have depended instead 

        on the produce which could be grown from the land.  So the words:

                  “In toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life

                   In the sweat of your face you shall eat bread.”  (Gen. 3.17, 19)

        must have had real meaning for those who lived in this land through the 

        centuries. All facets of the life of these people have been influenced by  

        their sense of complete dependence upon the land and its produce.

                   There were 2 things over which people had little or no control: the 

        nature of the land itself and the climate. It wasn’t enough to plow and sow 

        and reap; they must, in addition, enter into some kind of relationship with 

        the God who could guarantee abundance.  The religion of the Palestinian 

        people was thus directly related to their agricultural life.   The Israelite reli-

        gious year revolved around crop cultivation, so that the major fasts and 

        feasts have both an agricultural and a religious significance.  It is impor-

        tant to realize that these people were part of an agricultural civilization be-

        fore we can understand what their life was like.

                   Hardships Faced and Crops Grown—Nothing grows easily in 

        Palestine; the entire year was one of unending toil.  The land was better 

        in ancient times than it is now, with thicker layers of fertile soil on top of 

        the rock.   Still, there are abundant references to how clearing the fields of 

        stones was the first and constant activity of every farmer.  It is a popular 

        Arabic story that half the stones intended for the entire world were spilled 

        onto Palestine by angels.

                   The land is also very hilly.  The number of fertile valleys is limited 

        and a high percentage of farming has to be done on hillsides; terracing 

        was used in order to give the farmer a larger cultivable area.  Even today, 

        after a great amount of erosion has taken place in the intervening centu-

        ries, the land in many parts of Palestine will yield richly if sufficient water is   

        available.

                   The Palestinian farmer also found himself at the mercy of a varied 

        climate, with a 5-month rainless summer season, from mid-May to the 

        mid-October.   He would have to prepare for it during the rainy winter sea-

        son, with its unpredictable rains.  The only safeguard for the farmer was 

        to furnish himself with adequate storage places, cisterns, which are found 

        on every major site in Palestine.  Even then, there might be too little rain 

        to fill the cisterns. In earlier periods, the farmer made use of springs and 

        perennial streams such as the Kishon, and the Jabbok.   Such water 

        would have to be carried or run into irrigation ditches.   

 

                                    A-18

                   Numerous references to dew attest to the value it had for the produc- 

        tion of good crops.  The lack of dew was taken as a sign of catastrophe or 

      God's disfavor.   The heavy dew comes in late August and September, and a 

        farmer will take special measures in the middle of the night and early mor-

        ning to preserve as much of the precious moisture as possible.

                   The hot winds from the eastern desert, the siroccos, could play 

        havoc with any growing thing from mid-September to late October.  They 

        lasted from 3 days to a week; the temperature could rise 11 degrees Centi-

        grade above the average, the air was filled with a yellowish haze, and the 

        air dried up.   A prolonged sirocco is one of the farmer's most dreaded expe-

        riences.  Finally, insects and plant disease greatly increased the danger of 

        crop failure, and ancient farmer had no protection, he could only hope for 

        strong steady wind. 

                   Numerous Biblical passages show that 3 crops dominated the agri-

        culture here: the vine, the olive tree, and grain.  The vine grew well and, 

        once planted, required only the loosening the ground and pruning in the 

        spring.   The fruit was eaten fresh as well as dried into raisins and tram-

        pled into wine.  The olive tree was very well suited to most areas of Pale-

        stine; it grows well in very shallow soil and  is able to endure long periods 

        of drought, it cannot handle severe cold.  The olive harvest is the first in 

        the year, but since the ripening process is slow, the farmer might pick them 

        as his time permitted.  

                   Of the grains, wheat was the most important and grew best in Gali-

        lee.  It was planted in early fall when the winter rains started.  Barley was 

        also grown but may have been considered a second-class food and is the 

        product of a drier climate and poorer soil, grown mostly in the South and 

        East.   A third grain was spelt, an inferior kind of wheat. 

                   Flax was also grown; linen and rope were made from it.  Although 

        there is no explicit mention in the Bible of dates as food, numerous refe-

        rences to the palm tree strongly suggest that its cultivation played an im-

        portant part in the farmer’s life.  The date palm especially flourished in the 

        Jordan Valley north of the Dead Sea.  Dates may have also been made 

        into cakes as were figs, which were the main sugar source in the diet.  

        Other products included pomegranates, lentils, beans, chick peas, cucum-

        bers, onions, leeks and garlic.

                   Implement, Storage, and Workers—Compared to the farmer 

        today in most parts of the world, including modern Palestine, the Israelite

        farmer’s work was made doubly difficult by the primitive implements which 

        he used.   His plow was hardly more than a wooden stick with a small 

        metal point, drawn by oxen.   Before 1000 B. C., the points were made of 

        copper or bronze; after that they were made of iron.  None of them went 

        deeper than 12.7cm.  There was no tool for seeding, so it was probably 

        sown by hand.

                   Reaping was done with a small hand sickle.  The reaper held the 

        stalks in his hand and cut them off close to the ground with the sickle; this 

        method is still commonly in use in Palestine. After the grain was cut, it was 

        taken to the threshing place, where kernels were separated from stalks. 

                   When the grain was threshed, the next operation was winnowing. In 

        the afternoon, when the wind blew, the grain was thrown up into the air; the

        lighter materials blew away and the heavier grains fell to the ground. The 

        remainder was sifted to separate the materials left that were either larger 

        or smaller than the grain by pouring them through sieves of different sizes, 

        one allowing the dust through and held the grain, and the other would hold 

        larger pieces and allow the grain through.   For storage of grain, oil, and 

        wine, large storage jars were used; they were very common in Palestine.

                    Because of the different growing seasons of the crops, the entire 

        year is involved in either planting or harvesting.  During the day the villa-

        ges would be empty; at night, many would be absent from their homes 

        guarding the ripening crop.  Also in the fields, vineyards, and olive groves 

        were the gleaners, who would gather up anything that was left behind.  

        These gleaners were often widows and orphans and had the right by law

        to what remained.  There was a freedom of spirit and unrestrained gaiety 

        during the harvest time.

                     Agriculture and the Bible—Agricultural pursuits were so much a 

        part of life that it seemed as though God had established them from the 

        beginning as the superior way of life.  God not only taught the farmer 

        good farming techniques; God also had it in God's power to manage na-

        ture so as to assure the maximum results from man's labor, and God 

        causes dire calamities to befall those individuals or nations who sin.

                   The 3 major festivals which the Israelite was required to observe 

        were strictly agriculture in nature.  The products of the earth were the gifts 

        of God, and therefore due reverence must be paid to God.  Of the 35 sec-

        tions of the Deuteronomic Code, 8 deal in whole or in part with matters 

        pertaining to the agricultural life of the people (e. g. landmarks may not be 

        moved to falsely alter property lines; Grain couldn't be sown in a vineyard; 

        nor was one permitted to plow with an ox and an ass yoked together.

                                     A-19

                   Figures of speech with agricultural images can be found throughout 

        the Bible.   Replanted vineyards and gardens will be a part of a restored 

        Israel.  Good harvests were a symbol of joy; poor harvests were a symbol 

        of sorrow.  Likewise the poets and sages found the common farming voca-

        bulary pregnant with meaning and used it when they wanted to express 

        themselves forcefully.  Jesus' words especially reflect how these images 

        could convey to the man of Palestine messages of great meaning (e.g. 

        parables of the sower and the laborers; the fruits of good trees bad trees).

        The seed, the vine, the tree, the fruit are all useful metaphors when and 

        anyone wants to describe God and God's way with man. 

               

AGRIPPA.  1. (Herod) Agrippa (10 B.C.-44 A.D.); Herod the Great's Grandson.  

        Due to his mother's influence in Rome Agrippa I spent his early years 

        there, in extravagant living.  After her death, he ran into serious debt and 

        was obliged to leave Rome to escape hounding creditors.  His brother-in-

        law, Herod Antipas helped him by appointing him agoranome (market 

        overseer) in Tiberias.  The brothers-in-law soon quarreled and Agrippa re-

        signed his post.  The aid given to him by the Roman governor in Antioch 

        had similar results.  With difficulty he made his way back to Rome; once 

        again he established close imperial relationships; once again his lavish li-

        ving put him in debt, and this time his unwise words landed him in prison.

                   When Tiberius died, Caligula succeeded him, freed Agrippa and 

        made him king over the tetrarchies of Phillip.  After Caligula’s murder in 41 

        A.D., Emperor Claudius gave him the additional territories of Judea and 

        Samaria.  When he finally took over his kingdom, he practiced good con-

        duct, due either to genuine change or clever policy.   He cultivated the 

        Pharisees' good opinion; he observed his countrymen's laws and tradi-

        tions; he made public displays of piety; his temple gifts were generous.  

                   All these things won him favorable reactions from his Jewish sub-

        jects.  In those places where there were large non-Jewish settlements 

        Agrippa carried on a building program. The Roman government reacted 

        cautiously to his administration, and twice his ambitious projects were in-

        terrupted.   Agrippa died suddenly in Caesarea in 44 A.D.

                   2.  Agrippa  II,  Marcus Julius Agrippa (28 - after 93 A. D.); son of 

        Agrippa I.  Like his father, he received his education in Rome.   He was 17 

        when his father died, but declined to succeed his father.   In 48, Emperor 

        Claudius gave Agrippa the small kingdom of Herod of Chalcis; somewhat 

        later, in exchange for this Agrippa received a much larger domain.  For the 

        most part, the population of his holdings, which included Galilee and Pe-

        rea, was Gentile.

                   Though on a number of occasions he intervened in behalf of Jews

        of the Diaspora, his sympathies were with Roman interests.  Throughout 

        the great war against Rome (66-70) he was staunchly loyal to Rome and

        totally subservient to their power.  His intimate relationship with his sister 

        was the subject of widespread scandal; he was apparently devoid of any 

        religious interest and left no family behind him.

AGUE.  Malarial fever characterized by stages of chills, fever and perspiration.

AGUR  An otherwise unknown author of maxims mentioned in Proverbs 30.  

        Some assume “Agur” is a name; some argue that it is a descriptive title.  

        No one is sure.

AHAB  (אחאב, father's brother) 1.  King of Israel around 869-850 B.C.; son 

        and successor of Omri.  His name is presumably because of his likeness

        to his father.   Despite the Bible saying that Ahab reigned over Israel in 

        Samaria 22 years, the evidence of other events compared to his reign 

        make it clear he ruled only 20 years in northern Palestine at the same 

        time that King  Asa and later King Jehoshaphat ruled in southern 

        Palestine.  

              He made a political marriage with Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal 

        the Sidonian king. This alliance was necessary in the face of the growing 

        power of Aram under its king, Ben-haddad.  It increased trade between 

        the two countries, but as a result produced a sharp division between the 

        wealthy merchants and the masses. 

                   Jezebel was a strong-minded woman and a fanatical worshipper of 

        the Tyrian deities, Baal-Melcarth and Asherah; the cult of these deities was 

        associated with immoral practices. Ahab built a house for Baal in Samaria 

        and made an Asherah.  Jezebel is remembered as ruthlessly pushing her 

        religion in Israel until a clash occurred with the worship of the God of Isra-

        el.  Elijah as the champion of Yahweh's religion was also the champion of 

        the poor and the widow during Ahab's reign and confronted Ahab and 

        Jezebel more than once.        

                                  A-20

                   The only record of Ahab's building cities in the Bible is that of Jericho 

        by Hiel of Bethel.  Historically Jericho was rebuilt on Ahab's orders, probab-

        ly as base of operations against Moab.  During the building some of the buil-

        der's children died, thus fulfilling Joshua’s curse on the re-builder of Jericho.

        Archaeology has verified the record of Ahab's great building achievements

        in Samaria.  He continued the construction of the city begun by his father, 

        Omri.   The city and its 3 immensely strong walls withstood more than one 

        siege and finally fell only after a siege lasting 3 years.  Some say the work-

        manship is the best found in Palestine.   Its opulence is evidenced by large 

        numbers of carved ivory pieces.

                   Ahab brought a sizable force of chariots to meet the second Assyrian

        expedition led by Shalmaneser III in 854-853 B.C. at Qarqar. The battle was

        indecisive, as the Assyrians withdrew and didn't reappear for 5 years.  Both 

        before and after this battle, Ahab fought against the Aram kingdom, although 

        in the battle of Qarqar they fought as allies.   Before Qarqar, Aram attacked 

        twice and was routed twice and surrendered several cities as a result.   After 

        Qarqar, Ahab attacked with King Jehoshaphat as an ally, and was killed at 

        Ramoth-gilead.  He was buried in Samaria.  Before his death, Ahab also had 

        trouble with a revolt by Moab, which had attained a lot of independence.  Isra-

        el attained a strong position as a result of Ahab’s leadership.

                  2.  Son of Kolaiah; one of the false prophets among the Babylonian ex-

        iles, condemned by Jeremiah to a death by fire.

           

AHARAH  (אחרח)  The 3rd son of Benjamin, probably the same as Ahiram.

AHARHEL  (אחרחל)  Son of Harum, of the tribe of Judah.

AHASBAI  (אחסבי)  The father of Eliphelet, a member of the company of the 

        Mighty Men of David known as the “30.”  He is from either the Judean 

        family of Maacah, or the city of Beth-maacah.

AHASUERUS  אחשורוש ) (a haz oo er us))  1. The Persian king who 

        "reigned from India to Ethopia over 127 provinces . . .,” and who married 

        Esther.      2.  The father of Darius the Mede.  

     

AHAVA  (אהוא, a ha va )  A town in Babylonia located on a river or stream with 

        that name.  It was there that Ezra assembled the Jews who were to return 

        to Jerusalem with him.

AHAZ (אחז, has grasped) King of Judah (Southern Israel) around 735-715 B.C.;   

        son and successor of Jotham.  Ahaz was 20 years old when he began to 

        reign, and he reigned for 16 years, according to the Bible.  Other sources

        point to a longer reign of 20 years.  The confusion may be because of his

        age when he became king, or the 16 years his father reigned.

                   No mention is made of his mother's name, perhaps because of his 

        evil reputation.  He was remembered for idolatrous practices, including bur-

        ning his own son as an offering, an appeal for divine aid in lifting the siege 

        of Jerusalem by the kingdoms of Aram and (Northern) Israel.  It is not clear 

        that Aram and Israel acted as allies.  The Philistines also made raids on the 

        Shephelah cities and Judah’s Negeb; Judah suffered greatly.

                   In these circumstances Ahaz appealed to Tiglath-pileser of Assyria 

        for assistance, against the advice of the prophet Isaiah, who thought Ju-

        dah's long-term hopes lay not in entangling alliances, but in faith in the po-

        wer of her God.   Ahaz was summoned to Damascus.  There he saw their 

        altar and had a new one like it constructed in the temple.  The old altar was 

        reserved for his use.

                   The Chronicler gives a picture of complete religious chaos in the 

        land.   He understood the new altar which Ahaz had caused to be erected 

        as a Syrian altar.  The Chronicler followed the old belief that victory in war 

        proved that the gods of the victors were stronger than the gods of the con-

        quered; but it was God who brought destruction upon the land because of 

        the king's apostasy.   The Chronicler wanted Ahaz's reign and idolatrous 

        apostasy to stand out in stark contrast to his son Hezekiah's reforming zeal.

               

                                  A-21

AHAZIAH   (אחזיה (a ha zie ah), Yahu has grasped)  1.  King of (Northern) 

        Israel (850-849 B.C.)  He reigned for 2 years.  He offered to help Jehosha-

        phat king of Judah (Southern kingdom) man a fleet based on Ezion-geber,

        by which they hoped to revive Arabian trade.  Jehoshaphat refused.  Aha-

        ziah was seriously injured in a fall and sent messengers to obtain an ora-

        cle from Baal-zebub, the Syrian God of life.  Ahaziah died and had no son,

        so the throne passed to his brother Jehoram.

                   2.  King of Judah around 842 B.C., son and successor of Jehoram, 

        murdered by Jehu.  The Chronicler reports an invasion of Judah by Phili-

        stines and the Arabs in the reign of Jehoram; they carried off Jehoram's 

        wife and other sons, except for his youngest son Jehoahaz, also known as

        Ahaziah.  His mother's name was Athaliah; she was the great-granddaugh-

        ter of King Omri of Israel.  He replaced his father on the throne; it is not 

        clear under what circumstances.  He only reigned for part of a year.  

                   Joram was Ahab's son and king of Israel at the same time as Aha-

        ziah, and died shortly before Ahaziah did. A revolt under prophetic inspi-

        ration broke out in the army at Ramoth-gilead.  The prophet Elisha sent 

        a son of the prophets to seek out and anoint Jehu, son of Jehoshaphat 

        as king over Israel.  Joram and Ahaziah met Jehu; Jehu killed Joram 

        and later wounded Ahaziah, who died a short time later.  The version in

        Kings and the version in Chronicles differ as to the exact details of his 

        death.

AHBAN  (אחבן, brother of intelligent one).   One of Abishur's sons in the 

        genealogy of Jerahmeel.

AHI  (אחי, brother).   A word mentioned twice in the Chronicler's genealogies; it 

        seems abbreviated.

AHIAH  (אחיה, brother of Y)   English variant of the name Ahijah.  It is on the 

        list of leaders under Nehemiah who set their seal to the covenant.

AHIAM  (אחיאם)  The son of Sharar or Sachar, the Hararite; a member of the 

        company of heroes of David known as the “30.”

AHIAN  (אחין, brotherly)  The first son Shemida in the genealogy of Manasseh.

AHIEZER  (אחיעזר, my brother is help)  1.  Son of Ammishaddai; he represen-

        ted the tribe of Dan in assisting Moses with the census, and was their cap-

        tain as rearguard for the line of march.      2. Leader of the Benjaminite 

        bowmen from Saul's tribe who came to David's aid while he was hiding in 

        Ziklag.

AHIHUD  (אהיהוד, brother of majesty)  1.  An Asherite leader, son of Shelomi, 

        and one of those appointed to superintend the distribution of territory 

        among the ten tribes who went west of the Jordan.      2.  A Benjaminite 

        listed in the tribal genealogy of Chronicles.

AHIJAH  (חיהא, brother of Y)  1.  A priest in Saul's time of; son of Ahitub, 

        grandson of Phineas, and great-grandson of Eli.  He was priest in Shiloh 

        and was responsible for the holy objects, perhaps used as oracles, while 

        Saul's army was on the march.  Many scholars believe that his name was 

        once Ahimelech (Melech is a Canaanite God, and that his name was 

        changed in favor of Yahweh.      2.  A Pelonite who was one of David's 

        Mighty Men.      3.  Son of Shisha; a secretary or scribe under Solomon.

                   4.  A prophet from Shiloh who represented the prophetic opposition 

        to the blending of religions and the despotic injustice of Solomon's reign.  

        Ahijah met Jeroboam in the north and proclaimed the division of the king-

        dom into Israel (North) with 11 tribes under Jeroboam and Judah only in 

        the south.  Jeroboam's reign lacked enough zeal for Yahweh.  When Jero-

        boam's son was near death, Jeroboam asked Ahijah about the outcome of 

        the son's illness.   Ahijah pronounced death for the child and doom for the 

        house of Jeroboam.

                   5.  The father of Baasha, king of (Northern) Israel from the Issachar

        tribe.         6. Son of Bela.      7.  One of the sons of Ehud who were carried 

        as captives to Manahath.      8.  One of the sons of Jerahmeel of the tribe 

        of Judah.      9.  A Levite who was in charge of the treasuries in the temple.

                                     A-22

AHIKAM  (אחיקם, my brother has arisen)  Josiah's minister; he saved Jere-

        miah from death under Jehoiakim.

AHILUD ( אחילוד a brother is born)  The father of David's recorder, 

        Jehoshaphat.

AHIMAAZ  (אחימעץ, brother is counselor)  1.  The father of Ahinoam,  Saul's

        wife.      2.  A son of Zadok the high priest; he was in the priestly company 

        that brought the ark to David when he had vacated Jerusalem.  Ahimaaz 

        was part of the spy system that kept David informed of the palace news.  

        The system was discovered; he and Jonathon barely escaped capture.

                   After the battle in the Ephraim forest in which Absalom was slain and 

        his forces routed, Ahimaaz asked Joab to permit him to carry the news of the 

        victory to David.  Joab knew that the Absalom’s death would greatly distress 

        the king and obscure the military victory and sent someone else and also 

        allowed Ahimaaz to go.  Ahimaaz got to David first and told of the victory, but 

        professed ignorance of Absalom's fate.

                   3.  One of the 12 officers appointed by Solomon and charged with

        provision of the royal house from the revenues of the Naphtali district.

AHIMAN  (אחימן)  1.  One of 3 sons of Anak or “giants” in Hebron when the 

        Israelites scouted out the land.  Ahiman was an individual or tribe among 

        the Anakim and was defeated in Hebron by the men of Judah.

                   2.  A Levite, 1 of 4 chief gatekeepers of Jerusalem in the postexilic 

        period.

AHIMELECH  (אחימלך, brother of the king, brother of (the God) Melech)  

        1. Priest of Nob, son of Ahitub. His aid to David caused Saul to slaughter 

        the Nob priesthood.  There is disagreement whether he changed his name 

        to Ahijah.      2.  A Hittite in the service of David.     3.  Mentioned in 3 pas-

        sages as Abiathar's son, when everywhere else it was he who is father 

        and Abiathar the son.

AHIMOTH  (אחימות, my brother is Mot)  A Levite of the family of Kohath.

AHINADAB  (אחינדב, brother is noble)  Son of Iddo; 1of the 12 officers ap-

        pointed by Solomon, charged with providing for the royal house with the 

        revenue from southern Gilead.       

AHINOAM  (אחינעם, my brother is delight)  1.  The wife of Saul and daughter 

        of Ahimaaz.      2.  One of David's wives, a woman from Jezreel.  She sur-

        vived flight, capture, and was mother of David's first-born, Amnon.

 AHIO  (אחיו, his (their) brethren)  Due to the uncertainty of the Hebrew lan-

        guage, it could be a proper name (a son of Abinadab, Elpaal, or Jeiel in 

        3 different passages) or it could mean his or their brothers.

AHIRA  (אחירע, the (divine) brother is a friend)  A leader of Naphtali and son 

        of Enan; he assisted Moses in taking the census of Israel and other tasks 

        in the wilderness.

AHIRAM  (אחירם, my brother is exalted)  The third son of Benjamin; Ahira-

        mites is the name of a family.  Scholars believe his name is misspelled 

        in passages to be found in Genesis and I Chronicles.

AHISAMACH (אחיסמך, the (divine) brother has supported)  A Danite and the 

        father of Oholiah, who was appointed to make the tabernacle and its 

        equipment.

AHISHAHAR  (אחישחר, brother of the dawn)  One of the sons of Bilhan ben 

        Jediael. 

AHISHAR  (אחישר)  The royal chamberlain in the cabinet of Solomon.

                                     A-23

AHITHOPHEL  (אחיתפל, brother of folly)  A native of Giloh in the highlands of 

        Judah who served as the royal counselor to David.  When Absalom revol-

        ted against his father David and was crowned at Hebron,  Ahithophel joined 

        Absalom.   He advised Absalom to violate the royal harem left behind by 

        David, which politically committed Absalom to the revolt.  Ahithophel then 

        asked for 12,000 men with whom to pursue and destroy David.  His advice 

        was ignored; Absalom chose to wait on the advice of David's spy, Hushai. 

        Seeing disaster ahead in Hushai's plan, Ahithophel went home and hanged 

        himself.  

                   One possible explanation for Ahithophel's betrayal of David was the

        inference made by some scholars that he was Bath-sheba's grandfather,
   the woman whose husband David had killed in order that he might have
   her himself.

AHITUB  (אחיטוב, the brother (God) is good)  1.  The father of Ahimelech 

        (Ahijah)     2.  The father or grandfather of a priest named Zadok. 

AHLAB  (אחלב, fatness, fertility)  A town in the territory of Asher, about 6.4 

        km northeast of Tyre.  Asher was unable to drive out the Canaanite inhabi-

        tants of the town.

AHLAI  (אחלי, Oh! would that!)  1.  A daughter of Sheshan in the line of Jerah-

        meel.    2.  The father of Zabad in the list of David's Mighty Men.

AHOHI  (אחוחי, hot (?))  The father of Dod and grandfather of Eleazar who 

        was 2nd among David's three Mighty Men.

AHOHITE, THE (האחוחי)  A patronymic or geographic designation of uncer-

        tain reference, applied to military heroes in the time of David.

AHUMAI  (אחומי, brother of water)  One of the sons of Jahath in the genealo-

        gy of Judah.

AHUZZAM  (אחזם, possessor)  A son of Ashhur in the genealogy of Judah. 

AHUZZATH  (אחזת, held fast (by God))  The man who accompanied Abime- 

        lech from Gerar to make a covenant with Isaac at Beersheba.

AHZAI  (אחזי, Yahu has grasped)  A priest in Ezra's time.

AI  (העי, the ruin)  A city in Ephraim, east of Bethel.  Abraham twice pitched his 

        tent between Ai and Bethel.  Ai was attacked by Israelites after they had 

        taken Jericho. The Israelites sent out only a few men and met with an un-

        expected defeat.  Joshua was told by God that the cause of the defeat was 

        someone's failure to destroy all the spoils of Jericho as God had comman-

        ded.  Lots were cast and the culprit was Achan. 

                   On the next attack the defenders were drawn out of the city by part 

        of Israelite forces faking a retreat while others walked into the city unop-

        posed.  The city was burned and left a heap of ruins around 1200 B. C. 

        The evidence found by archaeologists doesn't support this date.  The city 

        was first built around 3000 B.C. and destroyed not later than 2000 B.C. 

        The site was not occupied at all at the time of the Israelite conquest.

                                      A-24

                   This evidence shows that this story is an example of how the setting 

        of Israelite conquests of several centuries were move to Joshua's time.  

        Another suggestion is that the story originally referred to Bethel which was 

        conquered according to the book of Judges, but somehow omitted from 

        the book of Joshua.  A third suggestion places the conquest of Ai around 

        1125 B.C.

AIAH  (איה, falcon, hawk)  1.  The first born of a Zibeon clan chief.      2.  The 

        father of Saul's concubine Rizpah.

AIJALON  (אילון; place of the deer)  1.  A valley which figures in the account of 

        the defeat of the five Canaanite kings in Joshua 10.  Located on the Phili-

        stine border just below Beth-horon, it was an important pass into the 

        mountains of Judah.

                   Aijalon was assigned to Dan on or near its border with Ephraim.  It 

        represented the western point of Jonathon's victorious pursuit of the Phili-

        stines after the battle of Michmash.   David made this city a Levitical one 

        and assigned it to the Kohathites.  After the North-South division of the 

        monarchy, it was included in Benjamin and fortified by Rehoboam against 

        invasion from the west or the north around 922-915 B.C.; the Philistines 

        captured the city around 735-715 B.C.      

        2.  A place in Zebulun where the judge Elon was buried.

AIN  (עין, spring)  1.  A city on the boundary of “greater Palestine,” either near 

        Riblah or near the junction of the Yarmuk and Jordan rivers.      2. City 

        mentioned in Josh. 15.      3. The Levitical city assigned to the Aaronids.

AIN (ע).  The 16^th letter of the Hebrew alphabet (Each verse of the 16^th section 

        of Psalm 119 begins with this letter.)

AIR, POWER OF  The author of Ephesians refers to the “prince of the power of  

        air (probably Satan,)” whom the Christians at Ephesus had once followed.  

        The “air” refers to the lower atmosphere, in contrast with the sky.  The air 

        was believed to be the home of evil spirits, from which they exerted power 

        over men. 

AKELDAMA  (Aκeλδemαχ (ak el de mak)); field of blood, field of sleeping)  A 

        burial ground outside the Jerusalem wall, used once by Luke in Acts 1.19.  

        Acts records that Judas purchased this field with the silver paid him for be-

        traying Jesus.  The chief priests recognized that the silver flung back at  

        them by a remorseful Judas, who then went out and hanged himself, could 

        not be put in the treasury, so they bought a burial place.

                   It is probable that there existed even before the Christian era an 

        area of caves used for burial, one that had a Aramaic name similar to 

        Akeldama.  In Matthew, the field becomes the place to bury strangers 

        (foreigners) and is called the “potter's field,” which may only mean that it 

        once belonged to a potter.

AKH-EN-ATON  ((aka na ton), it is well with (the son-god) Aton)  A pharaoh 

        around 1369-1353 B.C. of the 18th Dynasty, promoter of a religious and

        cultural revolution.  He changed his name to promote a new god, Aton, 

        and to disavow the old god, Amon, for whom he was once named. 

                   His father Amen-hotep III accepted new trends in government, 

        religion, art, and literature.  Akh-en-aton and Nefert-iti soon left the old 

        capital of Thebes and founded a new one, called Akhetaton near the 

        modern Tell El-Amarna.  There he and his queen gave themselves over 

        to new trends in art and a new god to worship in what would be called 

        the world's earliest monotheism.

                   His preoccupation with internal reforms was disastrous to the 

        century-old Egyptian Empire in Syria and Palestine; it fell apart.  After 

        Akh-en-Aton's death, under his son-in-law Tut-ankh-Amon, his revolution 

        collapsed.   Though the formal movement was branded as heresy, it left 

        lasting results in the religious, intellectual, and aesthetic life in Egypt.

AKHETATON  ((a ka na ton) the place of glory of (the sun god) Aton)  See 

        above article.

AKKADIAN  The earliest wave of Semites to settle in Mesopotamia from 1800-

        1600 B.C., and their language.

                                     A-25

AKKUB  (עקוב, insidious)  1.  Son of Eljoenai, a remote descendant of David. 

         2.  The head of a family of Levitical gatekeepers in the temple after the 

         exile.    3.  The head of a family of temple servants.     4.  A Levitical ex-

         pounder of the law. 

AKRABBIM  PASS  (עקרבים, scorpions)  A mountain pass on the south bor-

         der of Canaan, where the road from Beer-sheba to the Arabah descends 

         abruptly into the Wadi Murra.  Also known as Akrabattene (See entry in  

         Old Testament Apocrypha section of the Appendix).

ALABASTER  (שש (shesh), white marble)  A soft stone, of light creamy color,

         usually veined.  Egyptian alabaster is calcium carbonate; Jordan Valley 

         alabaster or gypsum is calcium sulphate.  The stone is known to have 

         been imported into Palestine from Egypt in antiquity, in the form of small 

         objects. Besides Egyptian alabaster flasks, there was a limited industry of 

         native albaster or gypsum, in the Jordan Valley.  Some were made to look 

         like Egyptian pottery, some were made like Palestinian pottery and hol-

         lowed out with a chisel rather than a drill.   The quarry which provided 

         stone for flasks made in Beth-shan long before Christ's time is still used 

         today to quarry gypsum.

ALEMETH  (עלמת, covering)  1.  A son of Becher and grandson of Benjamin.

         2.  A descendant of Saul in the sixth generation through Jonathan and 

         Meribaal.      3.  A priestly city of Benjamin.

ALEPH  (א)  The first letter of the Hebrew Alphabet as placed in the Bible at the 

         head of the first section of the Psalm 119, an acrostic psalm, where each 

         line in the first section begins with this letter. 

ALEXANDER ( Aλexανδρος (al ex an dros), man's defender.  (See also the 

        entry in the Old Testament (OT) Apocrypha/ Influences Outside of the OT

        section of the Appendix.). 

                   1. A kinsman of the high priest Annas.     2. Alexander the Jew, of
        Ephesus. The Ephesian Jews were unjustly blamed for the slight which    
        was cast on Artemis, the city's patron, and this Alexander was put forward
        by them with the intention that he should address the mob in the theater 

        and indicate the Jews’ innocence. He may have been a smith himself, and 

        it may have been for this reason that he was put forward; the mob would 

        not let him talk.

                   3.  A false teacher in the church.  But, far from being a personal 

        adversary of Paul, like the coppersmith, it is probable that men like Alex-

        ander were the earliest teachers of Gnosticism, looking at the resurrec-

        tion in a purely spiritual or intellectual way.      4.  Alexander the copper-

        smith.  He is said to have done Paul great harm and to have strongly 

        opposed his message.  The enmity against the apostle appears to be 

        personal; it may be that he was a hostile witness at Paul's trial in Rome.

ALEXANDRA  (Aλexανδρα)  A Jewish queen.  Salome Alexandra was Aristo-

         bulus I’s wife; after his death, she married his brother Janneus.  Psalm 2 

         does express the ambition of Alexandra's husbands, to “break the hea-

         then and dash them in pieces,” and to restore David’s throne.  She was 

         Simon ben Shetach’s sister.

ALLAMMELECH A town in Asher, the southern part of the Plain of Acco; 

        the actual site has not been found.

ALLEGORY  The treatment of an ancient tradition whereby one ignores its 

        literal meaning and discovers new hidden meanings in each term.  No Old 

        Testament (OT) author was an allegorist and New Testament (NT) writers 

        made little use of this way of interpreting.  Biblical scholars made use of 

        it after the NT was written. 

                   Greeks used allegory to explain the acts of the gods, to find a 

        deeper significance in a primitive tradition in terms of hidden moral and 

        philosophical truths. The Jews of Alexandria were influenced by Greek 

        culture and thought in general and using allegory to interpret traditional 

        materials in particular.

                                    A-26

                   While Philo always remained a devout Jew and insisted on reve-

        rence for the Torah as the sacred revelation of God's word to Israel, his 

        extensive allegories removed him from their original meaning.  He tried to 

        fuse Judaism's scriptures with Greek science and philosophy; he sought 

        to enter the hidden sacred mysteries and profound meaning of God's Holy 

        Word.  This is in contrast to the Palestinian Jew, who did not make much

        use of allegory.

                   Of the biblical authors, Paul alone acknowledges using allegory; 

        Paul used allegory 4 times to bring out his argument's force.   In Galatians 

        4, Abraham's slave wife Hagar represents Mount Sinai, the law, and the 

        present Jerusalem; his free wife, Sarah, represents Jerusalem above.  

        Hagar's son Ishmael, was flesh-bound, while Issac was the child of pro-

        mise.   Paul left Sarah's allegorical meaning incomplete. 

                    Paul uses allegory 3 times in I Corinthians.  He uses the leaven in 

        bread to symbolize sin; sin spreads through the church, just as leaven  

        ferments the whole lump of dough.  And just as the oxen has the right to 

        grain while it helps to ground flour, so to the teachers of the gospel de-

        serve support.  Paul used allegory to see the sacraments in Israel's pas-

        sing through the Red Sea, eating manna, and the drinking from the water 

        of the rock.  Israel was “baptized” into Moses through the Red Sea waters,

        and partook of the supernatural food and water which flowed from the 

        rock, which symbolized Christ.  Paul used allegory, but it was not central 

        to his argument, nor was it an important means of understanding the OT.

                   The parables of Jesus found in the gospels, could easily be inter-

        preted by allegory.  Yet, only the parable of the sower is interpreted that 

        way in the Bible itself.  Jesus explains that, since their hidden meaning 

        can be understood only by those initiated into the mystery of the para-    

        bles' significance, true understanding of parables serves as a means of 

        telling the difference between those on the inside and those on the out-

        side of the enlightened group. 

                   In the allegory itself, the symbols become confused.  The seed is 

        both the preached word and the people who receive it; the people are 

        both the soil and the plants.  Also, the original meaning has been altered; 

        it is no longer a comment of how pure chance can bring about misfortune, 

        but a warning to guard against that which brings misfortune.

ALLEUIA  הללו־יה), praise the Lord)  See Hallelujah.

ALLIANCE  A union of interests.  For the patriarchs alliances among families,

        clans, and tribes were very frequent; however, note Abraham's insistence 

        that Isaac not marry a Canaanite.  Much later, common dangers began to 

        draw the tribes together into a very loose confederation, which became 

        the foundation for the United Monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon.

                   Solomon made a treaty with the king of Tyre, and his many marri-

        ages undoubtedly involved political agreements.  During the split into two 

        kingdoms (Israel and Judah), alliances were quite readily sought with 

        foreign nations (e.g. Hezekiah of Judah with Egypt against Assyria), or the 

        two kingdoms together against foreign nations (e.g. Jehoshaphat of Judah 

        and Ahab of Israel against Syria).

                   The prophets were strongly against the practice of making foreign 

        alliances, especially Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Hosea, for solely religious rea-

        sons.  Israel and Judah were almost always the dependent members of 

        such alliances and were thereby subject to influences of a cultic nature.  

        Ezra and Nehemiah vehemently opposed any alliances which would wea-

        ken the identity of the small state of Judah as God's people, and especi-

        ally marriages to non-Jews.

ALLON  (אלון oak)  1.  A prince in the tribe of Simeon.      2.  Joshua 19.33 

        “Oak in Zaanannim.”

ALLON-BACUTH  (אלון בכות, oak of weeping)  The site of the burial of 

        Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, most likely between Bethel and Ramah. 

ALLOTMENT.  In the Old Testament, this is a concept of land right. It evidently 

        had its origins in the law of the commune, where community holdings in     

        landed property changed owners at certain intervals by having them redi-     

        stributed by lot. This is in the background when the psalmist rejoices that   

        possession of good land has been allotted to him.

                                        A-27

              This system was still used later in unusual cases, as when land, once

        privately owned needed to be reapportioned.   Micah hoped for such are

        apportionment in the Judean communities, when those from the city who 

        owned land in the country, had to get out after Jerusalem's punishment. The

        importance of this allotment system isn't surprising when one considers that

        it was a sacral act, and that the will of Yahweh was personally at work in the

        random falling of the lots. 

                   The idea obtained from the administering of the communal land right

        was probably carried over very early into the conception of the process by 

        which the tribes occupied their territory.   What was used on a small scale,

        in rural communities, was used on a large scale for the 12 tribes, and was 

        based on the idea that Yahweh was sole possessor of the land, revealing 

        God's will through lot, first to the tribes, then to the individual clans, and final-

        ly to individual families.   Levi received no tribal territory for settlement be- 

        cause Yahweh was his portion.   It should be noted further that the word "lot"

        in the Old Testament, beyond being the instrument of decision and the allot-

        ted portion of land, can also, as in modern languages, means fate.

ALMIGHTY (שדי (sha die), the Mountain One/ πανtωχραtορ; pan toek ra 

        tor, almighty) Originally the Hebrew word referred to El Shaddai, "god of the

         mountains," whom the patriarchs worshiped.  The worship of Yahweh (Lord)

        began with Moses. In the New Testament, the Greek word appears only in

        Revelation.

ALMODAD  (אלמודד, God is friend) The first son of Joktan, and perhaps the

        ancestor of a South Arabian tribe. 

ALMON  (עלמון, concealment) A priestly city in Benjamin, near Anathoth, 

        perhaps 1.6km northeast of Anata. 

ALMON-DIBLATHAIM (דבלתימה עלמון)  Stopping place of the Israelites, 

        following Dibon-gad and before Abiram Mountain, perhaps 4 km north-

        east of Libb. 

ALMOND ( a.) לוז (looz) b.)משקדים (me shuk kad him) c.)שקד (sha keed))

        a.) A tree common in the Near East.   b)  To watch, to wake.  

        c)  Apparently a symbolic name given to the almond tree because

        it blossoms first among the fruit trees; its blossoms appear before  

        its leaves; their likeness is found on the Menorah. 

ALMS  (eλeηmοσυνη; (el eh em os oo nay), compassionate, relief of the   

        poor) There is little direct reference to almsgiving in the Old Testament

        (OT), and no Hebrew word for “almsgiving.” Yet  references in the OT to

        the poor and needy, and  to institutions and ways of relieving them, shows

        that almsgiving was widespread. 

                   The Israelite is enjoined to be generous; he is to open his hand and

        lend to his poor brother.  The psalmist hasn't seen the children of the righ-

        teous begging bread.  The prophet claims that religious fast acceptable to

        the Lord includes gifts of bread to the hungry,  housing for the homeless, 

        and clothing for the naked.   Beggary is seen as a fitting curse for the un-

        righteous.  Almsgiving  is often concealed in hospitality, not only for superi-

        ors and equals, but for the hungry as well.  The manumitted slave is to be

        loaded with gifts, but here the idea of reward must also be present.   The 

        giving of alms gained merit for the donor.

                    In the New Testament, almsgiving figures prominently in the Ser-

        mon on the Mount. The recipients of the kingdom must sell their posses-

             sions and give alms.  There is a 3-fold basis for almsgiving. 1st, it is sig-

             nificant that in Jewish and Christian writing, “almsgiving” is the exercise 

             of righteousness.  2nd, almsgiving is the recognition that the giver is

             blessed.  3rd, the giver is rewarded for giving alms. 

 ALMUG (אלמוגים (al mug heem))  A special kind of wood imported from 

         Ophir by Hiram of Tyre and used in the construction of Solomon's temple

         and for lyres and harps.  It has been identified with red sandal wood, a 

         hard, closed grained, reddish-brown wood. 

                                     A-28

 ALOES (אהלים (a ha leem); אהלות, (a ha loth); aloh  (ah low))  An aroma-

         tic substance used for perfume and probably derived from either an eagle-

         wood tree or a white sandalwood tree, where it is mentioned in the Old Tes-

         tament.  In the New Testament, the true aloe that some believe was used

         for embalming is a succulent plant; it produces a bitter malodorous, purga-

         tive medicine.

 ALPHA AND OMEGA  (A; W) The first and last letters of the Greek alphabet.

         The basic meaning is: “The first and the last, the beginning and the end, 

         or “he who was, he who is, and he who is to come.”

                    Because he is the Alpha, God alone holds supreme power over the

         heaven and the earth.  God alone can make all things new. Because God 

         is the Omega, the end, God alone can “tell us what is yet to be.”  The first-

         ness and lastness of Jesus Christ is validated above all by the fact of his 

         death and resurrection.

                    The use of the alphabet to designate these attributes of God has  

         analogy in various forms of Hellenistic thought, but the basic symbolism is 

         drawn from the Old Testament, especially Isaiah.  The chief contrast be-    

         tween the Testaments lies in the full identification of Jesus Christ as the     

         Alpha and Omega, and in tracing his primacy and ultimacy to the 

         Resurrection.

  

 ALPHABET  A system of writing with consonants which was probably invented 

         between 2000-1500 B.C. by the Semitic peoples in or near Phoenicia. The

         alphabet as a system of writing is virtually unique in world history.  All com-

         parable systems of putting language into writing are from those symbols 

         first employed by northwestern Semites.  As originally developed, the al-

         phabet represented only the consonant sounds of the language for which 

         it was employed.  Each letter originally depicted, or at least represented, a

         specific object whose name began with the particular sound in question.

                    Perhaps the most important early alphabetic evidence of all comes

         from the archeological finds at Ugarit, which turned up a quantity of tablets  

         containing literary and other documents written in the local Canaanite, 

         wedge-shaped alphabet. 5 letters from this alphabet can be found in the

         Hebrew alphabet. The traditional Aramaic-Hebrew names of the letters, the

         accepted Hebrew meaning of the letter-names, and the Greek counterparts

         are as follows:

          א  aleph, ox,   α (alpha)            ל  lamedh, ox-goad, λ (lambda)

     ב  beth, house,   β ( beta)         מ  mem, water,   m (mu)

    ג  gimel, camel, throwing-stick,    נ  noon, fish,   ν (nu) 

           γ (gamma)

   ד  daleth, door, fish,   δ (delta)   ס  samekh, prop,   σ (sigma)

   ה  he, meaning uncertain,           ע  'ayin, eye,   ο (omicron)

             e  (epsilon)    

   ו  vav, hook,   υ (upsilon)          פ  peh, mouth,   π (pi), φ  (fie)

   ז  zayin,  weapon or olive tree,      צ  sadhe, fishhook, ? (san) 

             z  (zeta)   

   ח kheth, hedge, fence, η (eta)     ק  koph, back of head,   x (exi) 

   ט  teth, meaning uncertain,          ר  res, head,   ρ (rho)

            θ (theta)        

   י  yodh, hand,  ι (iota)               ש  sheen, tooth,   y (psi)

   כ  kaph, palm of hand,              ת  tav, mark,    t (tau)

                 κ (kappa)     

                  Though the number of inscriptions exhibiting early forms of the Phoe-

         nician alphabet is not enormous, it is far larger and of earlier date than that 

         of the material available from elsewhere; thus, it has become the norm.  

         There is a high degree of similarity that can be traced through this earliest 

         of alphabets, through the inscriptions found, to Old and New Hebrew, and

         onward to Old and New Greek. 

                    The earliest readable Hebrew inscription from the southern Canaa-

         nite area is the Gezer Calender, a small limestone tablet containing an 

         agricultural calendar in a very archaic script which differs little from that of 

         the Phoenician inscriptions of that same time. The earliest Aramaic inscrip-

         tions are roughly of the same time as those from Palestine and Phoenicia. 

         What is of interest here is the cursive variety of the Aramaic alphabet, 

         which was quite early adapted to the use of ink on papyrus.

                    While most agree that the Greeks borrowed their alphabet from the 

         Phoenicians, opinion differs widely on when and how this happened.  The 

         earliest Greek inscriptions are generally dated from 725-875 B.C.  Already 

         in the earliest Greek inscriptions, we find a regular use of certain letters to 

         indicate vowels, which is different from the Semitic use of the script. 

                                     A-29

                   The original ', h, (hard) h, w, y, and ' were employed to represent the 

         vowels a, e, long e, u, i, and o.  Because the original w was used for u, a 

         new sign was developed for w in those areas where this sound was still 

         used.  t was used to represent th, and new symbols were devised to write 

         p+ h (f) and k+h (c).    Likewise, new symbols were chosen for k+s (x) and

         p+s (y).  Separate symbols came to be used to designate long e and o, in 

         contrast to short e and o.

                    Before the discoveries at Ugarit, which clearly shows the order of 

         the alphabet and date back perhaps to 1500 B.C., the earliest material came

         from after 1000 B.C.   The earliest inscriptions generally assumed to be al-

         phabetic belong to the Middle and Late Bronze Ages and can be divided 

         into: the Palestinian inscriptions (1650 B.C.); the Sinaitic inscriptions (1500-

         1400 B.C); an isolated cylinder-seal (1500-1400 B.C.); and the confusing 

         inscriptions from Byblos (around 1200 B.C.). 

                    The dates or ranges of dates given above are the best guesses of     

         scholars.   Some of today's more important sources include: the Ruweisah

         arrowhead (1100-1000 B.C.); the el-Khadir arrowheads found near Beth-

         lehem (around 1100 B.C.); the writings of Hasdrubal of Byblos (near 1000    

         B.C.); the Ahiram sarcophagus inscription (around 1000 B.C.); and several 

         inscriptions from Byblos (between 950 B.C. and 900 B.C.).

                    There is certainly no shortage of suggestions concerning the origins 

         of the alphabet.   Since it is certain that many, if not all, of the original signs

         pictured a definite object, only comparisons with other hieroglyphic systems 

         of writing make sense in the present discussion.   Most plausible is the sug-

         gestion that the alphabet was invented under the influence of various scripts 

         that were developed nearby before it was. The 3 hieroglyphic possibilities

         are Egyptian, Hittite, and the still undeciphered script used at Byblos.

                    The fact remains that nothing comparable to an alphabetic system 

         of writing is known.  We must accordingly see the alphabet as the invention 

         of a small group of persons in Phoenicia or Palestine some time between 

         2000-1500 B.C.  The practice of representing only consonants found in the 

         original alphabet is common only to Egyptian writing, and it was perhaps 

         from that quarter that the chief inspiration sprang.  But the working out of a 

         system which has proved so flexible and so adaptable to worldw ide use is 

         due to the genius of the inventors alone. 

 ALPHAEUS (Aλφαeυς )  A purely Greek name, one of many such names 

         used commonly by 1st-century Jews in Palestine.  1. Levi's father (Mark 

         2:14).     2.  The father of James (Mark 3:8). 

 ALTAR  (מזבח, (miz bay akh))  The Hebrew word is from the verb for slaughter.

         The killing of the animal in front of the altar became absolutely necessary if 

         the blood was to be collected and sprinkled on the altar.  In the time of Exo-

         dus there were altars of earth (clay), of air dried bricks, and most commonly 

         of stone. 

                    Altars were “built” rather than “made.”  In the case of built altars, a 

         stone one should be assumed, built with what stones could be found lying 

         around without reshaping them.  The number of stones used was of no sig-

         nificance; it depended on the size of stones collected and the desired di- 

         mensions of the altar. The use of unhewn stone was expressly commanded 

         in Exodus, partly to avoid the luxury of square stones, and partly that the 

         stone used in worship shouldn't lose its natural qualities by being hewn.  In 

         rare cases, a large, single rock was used as an altar. 

                    We know several historical details about the burnt-offerings altar 

         which stood in front of the temple in Jerusalem.  It was built by Solomon 

         and used for about 200 years, but was replaced by a larger altar in Ahaz's

         reign, who saw an impressive altar in Damascus and had the high priest

         Uriah build one like it.  Solomon's smaller altar was set off to one side, be-

         cause Ahaz wanted to both preserve tradition and to have a modern “Yah-

         weh” altar.  It was made of stone, since the king was forced to have the 

         bronze temple vessels melted down to pay tribute to the Assyrian king. 

                    Specific measurements for an altar is given in Ezekiel.  The base 

         was 8 x 8 meters; it rose 1/2-meter to the next level, which was 7 x 7 meters.

         It rose another meter to the sacrificial level, which was 6 x 6 meters.  The 

         remarkable thing about this altar's design is that it is unique.  It resembled in 

         miniature the stepped towers for which Babylon is famous.

                    There do exist examples of altars which because of their location at

         a certain level of an archeological excavation can be firmly placed in a 

         time period. In the 19th layer of Megiddo a 5 x 8 meter temple was found

         with a platform measuring 1.6 x 4.1 x .7 meters that was exactly opposite the

         entrance.   At one point 4 steps of a stairway led up to the sacrificial level.  

         It should be dated around 3000 B.C. At a later time, between 1500 and 1100 

         B.C., there was a temple, rebuilt many times, which had during the 2nd and

         3rd time it was rebuilt a platform on which to deposit sacrifices.

                                          A-30

                    In the moat of the city of Lachish, a long-room temple which should 

         be dated between 1450 and 1250 B.C. was found.  In the last building phase

         of this temple there was a mud-brick altar, accessible by steps in front of 

         this shrine.  In the 6th layer (1600-1400 B.C.) of Alalakh in Syria, a temple 

         was found in which there was a mud-brick altar measuring .6 x .5 x .45 

         meters next to a bench.  It had a shallow depression on top and was inten-

         ded for burnt offerings.  The stone altar in front of the Baal temple in Ugarit-

         Syria was indented on the top in a similar fashion.  The altar in Hazor, about 

         1.3 x 2.7 x 1.3 meters, consisted of a 5 ton block of limestone, hollowed out 

         on top for solid, burnt, blood and liquid offerings.

                   There are still existing today several altars hewn from a single piece

         of rock, which are out in the open country and were clearly used for sacrifi-

         ces at one time, but the time of their making can't be determined.  In Petra, 

         east of the Jordan, there are numerous places of worship that have altars 

         hewn out of the natural rock from which the entire city of Petra was hewn.  

         These places of worship were most likely from the Greek or Roman era.  

         Places like Petra and the open-air altars may be thought of as being very 

         much like, if not the actual locations of the “high holy places” that are men-

         tioned in the Old Testament.

 ALUSH (אלוש) A place that Israel stopped on their way through the wilderness,

         between Dophkah and Rephidim.  The actual site has not been located. 

 ALVAH  (עלוה)  The 2nd of 11 clan chiefs descended from Esau and dwelling 

         in Edom. 

 

 ALVAN (עלון)  Perhaps the same as the previous entry. 

 AMAD  (עמעד)  A town in the territory of Asher.  Its present location is unknown.

 AMAL (עמל, trouble(?))  A son of Heler in the genealogy of Asher. 

 AMALEK (עמלק) Amalek is a grandson of Esau through Eliphaz and Timna.

         Amalekites origins are thus traced back by tradition to the early ancestry of

         the Edomites.  Throughout their entire known history, the Amalekites were a

         nomadic desert tribe, ranging the desolate wastes from Sinai and the Negev

         to the Arabah and inner Arabia.   The Amalekites were already active in the 

         Negev of Judah near Beer-sheba around 2000 B.C.  A group of kings under 

         Chedorlaomer subdued Amalek on the way homeward through Palestine.

                    Hostilities between Amalek and Israel began between 1300-1200 

         B.C., when the Amalekites ruthlessly attacked Israelite stragglers coming 

         out of Egypt, in order to protect their caravan routes from Egypt to Arabia; 

         No where do we find Amalek and Israel on friendly terms.  The defeat of 

         the Amalekites gave Israel unmolested possession of Kadesh-barnea. 

         When the spies reported to Moses, they expressed misgivings concerning

         the strength of the inhabitants, which included Amalekites.   The 1st well-

         attested appearance of the Amalekites in Transjordan is as mercenaries 

         during the early days of the judges.  The Amalekites appear around 1100 

         B. C., riding with the Midianites in the first known camel-nomad raid.  

                    One of the first tasks facing Saul after becoming king was to wage 

         war against Amalek.  He killed every one except King Agag. Saul's failure 

         to exterminate Amalek left the latter free to raid against settled commun-

         ities in southern Judah.  David had discovered that a party of them had 

         burnt Ziklag, taking the women and children captive, including David's 2 

         wives, Ahinoam and Abigail.  David and his host surprised the Amalekites; 

         only 400 escaped on their camels.  According to one biblical tradition, Saul

         asked a Amalekite to slay him, who then went to David with news of his 

         deed, expecting a reward and getting death instead.  

                    Further conflict with the Amalekites after David became king is found 

         in a summary of David's conquests.  With the firm establishment of the Uni-

         ted Monarchy and the organization of a strong political system, Israel 

         stopped  Amalekite raids.  By King Hezekiah's time, only a few of the Amale-

         kites remained.  Their final defeat was at Mount Seir in Edom, where their 

         history began.   No reliable accounts of the Amalekites are preserved out-

         side of the Old Testament, and no physical evidence of their existence has

         been found. 

                                          A-31

 AMAM (אמם, union (?))  A city in southwestern Judea; the site is unknown.

 AMANA  (אמנה, covenant)  A mountain peak in the Anti-Lebanon range, pro-

         bably south of the Amana river. 

 AMARIAH  (אמריח, Yahweh has promised)  1.  One of Hebron's sons, under

         the division of Kohath.       2. Chief priest during the reign of Jehoshaphat. 

         3. Son of King Hezikiah; great-grandfather to Zepheniah the prophet. 

         4. A subordinate Levite in the time of King Hezekiah, helping with the distri-

         bution of offerings.       5. The name appears 3 times in closely related 

         priest-lists in the book of Nehemiah.   It is difficult to know whether they 

         are separate individuals, priestly groups, or families.       6. Son of Shepha-

         tiah of Judah; an ancestor of Athaiah.      7. One of the sons of Binnui who  

         had to put away a foreign wife under Ezra's reforms.

 AMASA  (עמשא, burden)  1.  A nephew of David.   He served for a brief period

         as the commander of David's troops until his treacherous murder by Joab.  

         When the initial success of Absalom's conspiracy forced David out of the 

         capital, Amasa was made commander of Absalom's forces; shortly there-

         after, he was soundly defeated in the forest of Ephraim. 

                     Before his return to Jerusalem, David named Amasa commander of 

         his army.  The Judeans called for David's return; the Israelites felt slighted 

         at being politically outmaneuvered, and they rebelled, led by Sheba, who 

         threatened the national unity by his intrigue.  David directed Amasa to mus-

         ter Judean forces; when Amasa was late in arriving,   David placed Abishai

         at the head of the royal guards and told him to quell rebellion before any 

         fortified cities were occupied. 

                    When Amasa finally did join them, he was murdered by Joab, who 

         then continued the pursuit with Abishai while Amasa bled to death in the 

         roadway.   The corpse was later removed from the roadway and covered 

         with a garment, because it slowed the advance of the army.  Joab paid for 

         this murder and Abner's with his life in the reign of Solomon.

                 2.  Son of Hadlai.  Judean captives were taken in Israel's war with 

         Judah; he opposed their entry into the city of Samaria. 

 AMASAI  (עמשי, burdensome)  1.  According to the Chronicler, chief of the 30

         Thirty among David's soldiers.      2.  The name is used several times on 

         the Chroniclers list of Levites for 2 Kohathites, and a priest in the time of 

         David, appointed to blow the trumpet before the ark of God. 

 AMASHAI  (עמשי, possibly the same as Amasai)  A postexilic priest to be iden-

         tified with Maasai. 

 AMASIAH  (עמסיה, Yahu has borne) A Judahite, son of Zichri, one of the com-

         manders in Jehoshaphat's army and a loyal servant of Yahweh. 

 AMAW  (עמו)  The land west of the Euphrates, including the city of Pethor 

         where Balaam lived; Balaam was summoned from here by  Moab's King

         Balak around 1250 B.C.  The Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III first conquered

         Amaw around 1450 B.C.  

 AMAZIAH  (אמציה, Yahu is strong) 1. A Simeonite of I Chronicles.     2. A Le-

         vite of the family of Merari; David put him in charge of the song service be-

         fore the tabernacle of the tent of meeting.

                 3.  King of Judah (around 800-783 B.C.); son and successor of Joash. 

         Amaziah was 25 years old when he began to reign;  his father's murderers  

         were still among the servants of the king.  He put to death those who had 

         slain his father, but spared their sons.

                    His reign was marked by Edom's re-conquest and the killing of thou-

         sands of Edomites.  No doubt elated by his victory over Edom, Amaziah chal-

         lenged Joash of (Northern) Israel.   As a result, Judah became a vassal state

         of Israel.  The Bible says he reigned 29 years.  In order to agree with other 

         facts in the Bible, a reign of 19 years seems more accurate.  Like his father, 

         Amaziah was the victim of a court conspiracy.  He made his escape to La-

         chish, and was later murdered there.  He was brought back to Jerusalem in 

         procession and buried there, in the city of David.

                 4.  A priest of the royal sanctuary at Bethel in Jeroboam II's time.  He 

         tried to prevent Amos from prophesying there. 

                                             A-32

 AMBASSADOR  (πρeσβeυω (pres bay oo o); senior, representative)  When 

         used to refer to one sent by God this word was used to translate the He-

         brew word malack  and is taken to mean angel. 

 AMBER  (חשמל (khash mal))  Amber is a yellowish to brownish colored clear 

         and ancient, hardened resin usually with a fossil inside.  The word is used 

         in the Bible as a motif in visions. 

 AMBUSH  (מארב (ma ‘ha rawb))  A means of warfare regularly employed in 

         ancient times, and used with great success in Joshua and Judges.  Paul's 

         enemies planned ambushes for him in Jerusalem and coming back to Jeru-

         salem.  It was often used in the Old Testament as a symbol for the wiles of

         the wicked. 

 AMEN  (אמן, from the verb to take care, to support, to be firm, true, reliable, to 

         trust in, to believe in).  An exclamation by which listeners join in a blessing, 

         curse, or prayer, and the consequences that might arise from them.  An 

         “Amen” in response to David's command promises to obey it.  The respon-

         ding “Amen” is at times a part of the liturgy.  In private life a wife hearing 

         her husband's prayer may join him by saying  Amen with him.  A special use

         of "Amen" is the congregation's or a single Jew's response to “Blessed be 

         the Lord.”

                    The use of Amen in the New Testament usually follows the Old Tes-

         tament lines.  When the custom arose of reading from the New Testament 

         in the service, "Amen" was added at the end.  “The Amen” becomes one 

         of the titles of Christ as “the faithful and true witness.” Jesus introduces his 

         own sayings with: “Amen (Amen, Amen) I say to you.”  This comes near to 

         an oath by which Jesus can proclaim his exegesis of the Law, his warnings,

         and his promises.  This specific use of Amen by Jesus isn't followed by any

         apostle or prophet of the early Christian church. 

 AMETHYST  (אחלמה (akh law maw), dream stone; αmeθυσtος (am eth oos

         tos)  A deep-purple variety of aluminum oxide known as oriental amethyst.  

         It is a stone in the breastplate of the high priest and the 12th jewel in the 

         wall's foundation of New Jerusalem.

 'AM HA'AREZ  (הארץ עם (‘am  ha ar ets); people of the land)  On its face,

         the term seems self-explanatory, and  has seen many uses throughout his-

         tory.   Detailed studies of the term have indicated that this term in the begin-

         ning of its use was actually a technical term for a specific social class. The 

         word “'am” does not properly designate the entire population, but includes 

         only the responsible male citizenry, married men who live on their own land 

         and have full rights and duties.  They are thus the full citizenry of a speci-

         fic territory.    

                    The social and political importance of the 'Am Ha'arez of Judah is 

         indicated by the fact that in most cases where they are mentioned, some 

         matter of historic significance is involved.  The 'Am Ha'arez played an im-

         portant role in the political, economic, and social life of Judah and they must 

         have occupied the position just below priests on the social ladder.  The pri-

         soners captured in Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar included 60 'Am Ha'arez. 

         They and several priests were executed. 

                    After the return from exile, the 'Am Ha'arez still existed, but the situ-

         ation had changed drastically.  There were now 2 distinct groups of 'Am 

         Ha'arez: those returning from exile and those who had never left.  They be-

         came known respectively as "the people of Judah," and  "the people of the 

         land."  Conflict arose between these 2 groups. 

                    As the prophet Ezra used the term, it carried disapproval of their 

         mongrel ancestry as well as their paganism.  In rabbinic literature the term 

         appears as a contemptuous designation of those whom the rabbis regard 

         as immoral, irreligious, ignorant of the law, and too burdened with making 

         a living to worry about ritual purity.  When many of these 'Am Ha'arez be-

         came Christians, the term supposedly became a designation of Jewish 

         Christianity and then a general term of contempt of their laxity in regard to 

         the religious law. 

 AMITTAI  (אמתי, true)  The father of the prophet Jonah. 

                                            A-33

 AMMAH  (אמה, cubit) A hill near Giah in Benjamin, on the threshold of the wil-

         derness descent into the Jordan Valley.  After the Battle of Gibeon, Abner 

         made a stand here against Joab and a truce was called. 

 AMMI  (עמי, my people)  The new name given to Israel in the day of redemp-

         tion, in contrast to “Lo-ammi,” not my people,” which signified God's de-

         cisive rejection. 

 AMMIDIANS  A family group among those returning from exile; they and the 

         Chadiasans numbered 422. 

 AMMIEL  (עמיאל, my kinsman is God)  1. A son of Gemali sent out by Moses 

         to spy out the land of Canaan.      2. The father of Machir, in whose house

         the son of Jonathon was hidden from David.      3. Father of Bath-shua 

         (Bethsheba), David's wife.     4.  Sixth son of Obed-edom; he served tem- 

         ple gatekeepers. 

 

 AMMIHUD (עמיהוד, my kinsman is splendor)  1.  The father of Elishama, 

         leader of the half-tribe of Ephraim during the Exodus; great-grandfather 

         of Joshua.     2. The father of Shemuel; a Simeonite in Moses' time.

              3. The father of Pedahel; a Naphtalite in Moses' time.

              4. The king of Geshur's father, to whom Absalom fled.    

              5. Omri's Son, among Perez's sons of Judah who returned after the Exile.

 AMMINADAB (עמינדב, my kinsman is generous)   1. Nahshon's father, Ju-

         dah's tribal leader; father of Elisheba, (Aaron's wife); one of David's ances-

         tors, through his son.      2. Chief of the sons of Uzziel, a Levitcal group.    

         3. Kohath's Son and Korah's father in the Chronicler’s version of Levite 

         genealogy.      4. Esther's father in the Greek version of the Old Testament.

 AMMINADIB (עמי־נדיב, my prince) There is disagreement whether this is a 

         name or a title.

 AMMISHADDAI (עמישדי, kinsman is Shaddai (god)) Ahiezer's father, the 

         leader of Dan in the wilderness.

 AMMIZABAD (עמיזבד, kinsman hath bestowed) Son of the renowned Beni-

         ah, who was a member of the “Thirty.” Ammizabad served David as

         the commander of the division for the third month, possibly taking over

         from his father when his father was promoted to head of the “Thirty.”

 AMMON (עמון בני, son of my people or son of my clan) A Semitic people who 

         flourished as an autonomous political state east of the Jordan on the frin-

         ges of the Syrian Desert in central Transjordan between 1300-580 B.C. 

         After the Exile, a different ethnic group occupied this same area.

                    The younger daughter of Lot gave birth to Ben-ammi.  The name 

         means "son of my clan," and in itself suggests a kindred relationship be-

         tween Ammon and Israel.  It also appears to be a genuine and popular 

         name in western and southern Semitic languages as well.   Ben-ammi 

         could be identified both with clan name and the person who began the 

         clan.

                    Ammonite origins were in southern Transjordan, just east of the Salt  

         (Dead) Sea in the "land of Moab."  They were basically a Semitic-Habiru    

         mixture.  They spoke a language closely related to Hebrew, and some Ammo

         nites knew how to write in a southern Canaanite dialect closely related to

         biblical Hebrew.   And, judging by some gods and myth they share in com-

         mon with northern Transjordan and Babylon, we must look there also for in-

         fluences that led to a distinctive Ammonite tradition and people. 

                    With respect to language, ethnic relationship, and physical appea-

         rance,  Ammonite and Amorites may have been very similar, and even close-

         ly related.   From 1300-1250 B.C., Ammonites were little more than a small 

         tribal nucleus centered around their later capital, Rabbath-Ammon.  The ex-

         tent of the kingdom was the Jordan River in the west, the desert on the east,

         the Jabbok River on the north, and no further south than the Dead Sea.  

         Actually, the boundaries of Ammon were never so clearly defined as those 

         of Moab and Edom. 

                                            A-34

                    The formation of the Ammonite state was after the formation of the 

         Amorite, Moabite and Edomite kingdoms.  Ammon does not seem to have 

         reached the same level of settling down in one place that Moab did, but    

         maintained closer  ties with the desert throughout their history.  Their first 

         appearance in a military role finds them allied with Moabites and Amalekites

         to help the king of Moab regain former Moabite territory.

                    The Ammonites had strengthened themselves considerably and 

         moved against the tribes of Ephraim and Benjamin in Gilead.  Under the 

         command of Jephthah, these tribes beat the Ammonites, but left their

         strongholds untouched and the Ammonites future expansion unchecked.

         King Nahash of Ammon returned and drove as far as Jabesh-gilead.  Saul 

         met and decisively defeated Nahash. 

                    During the reign of David, when the son of Nahash took the Ammo-

         nite throne, conditions were soon created for renewed conflict.  The Ara-

         mean states of Beth-rehob, Maacah, and Tob formed an army and ad-

         vanced on Gilead from the north.   David's commander Joab  was forced to

         divide his army and send the better part of it against the Arameans, while the

         other part held off the Ammonites as they came from the south.   David later 

         made the Armeans into a vassal state, and made a devastating attack on

         Ammon, besieging Rabbah and making Ammon another Israelite vassal state.

                    Throughout the United Monarchy (around 961-922 B.C.), Ammon re-

         mained subservient to Israel.  David and later Solomon used the old royal 

         family to govern Ammon.  Their kingdom prospered along with Solomon's.  

         In such an ethnically diverse kingdom as Solomon's, it was inevitable that 

         cultural and religious mixing would develop.  Among the foreign women 

         Solomon loved were Ammonite women.  One of these, Naamah, was the

         mother of Rehoboam who was later the southern kingdom of Judah's 1st 

         king, after the United Monarch broke into the 2 kingdoms of Israel (North) 

         and Judah (South). 

                    After almost a century of subservient existence as a tributary state

         to Israel,  political conditions again enabled the Ammonites to embark upon 

         new conquest and expansion.  Around 922 B.C., the Ammonites  probably     

         took advantage of the opportunity to free themselves from Israelite control 

         from 900-850 B.C.  The Ammonite king Ba'sha fought at the Battle of Qar-

         qar in Hamath around 853 B.C. 

                    A thousand or more Ammonites joined the Arameans against Assyria

         to protect their northern commercial interests.  The Ammonites later joined 

         Moabites and Meunim in a campaign started by Arameans to force Jeho-

         shaphat's army to withdraw from Ramoth-gilead.  In the end, their armies 

         were destroyed.

                    The Ammonites were either the allies or the upsurging Aramean no-

         minal vassals in depriving Israel of her Transjordan territory.   Toward the 

         end of the 800s, Aramean power began to decline, and when Assyria turned

         aggressor again, the Aramean states were the first to collapse.   Ammon ap-

         pears to have remained unmolested and in control of southern Gilead until 

         around 750 B.C.   Uzziah established control of Ammon, which rebelled 

         after Uzziah's death before it was subdued and put under tribute to Jotham

         of Judah.

                    Under the Assyrian Tiglath-pileser, each Transjordan state was per-

         mitted to retain it own native dynasty, received the protection of Assyria, 

         and paid homage and tribute to the Assyrian monarch.  King Shanip of Am-

         on around 733 B.C., was allowed to take some of their former territory in 

         Gad.   After the Assyrian Sargon II died, there was a rebellion, and his suc-

         essor, Sennacherib had to mount a major expedition in order to force tribute

         from Ammon, Moab, and Edom.

                    King Bod'el ruled Ammon from 701 B.C. to at least 670 B.C.  

         Throughout most of the 600s, Ammon remained a nominal Assyrian pro

         vince and tributary to Assyria, but under their own native ruler.  For a time, 

         their tribute was larger than that of either Moab or Judah.  Assyrian protec- 

         tion enabled Ammonites to control a large part of the desert caravan trade.

         The Ammonites also developed a well-organized cavalry division in their 

         army during this time of Assyrian influence. After King Bod'el died, Ammo-

         nite culture and general prosperity flourished under Amminadab and those 

         right after him.

                    Architecturally, Ammonites built in what is generally called the mega-

         lithic style, because of the great size of the stones used in construction.  

         This style of building was carried on from early in Ammonite history to this 

         peak time of their culture.  Little is known of their culture's religion.  They 

         began with fertility gods, as do most agriculturally based cultures.  Most of 

         the tombs, statues, and seals found date from this peak of their civilization. 

         Most of the Ammonite tombs were cave tombs cut out of natural rock, 

         either below the ground or in the side of a hill.   At times the Ammonites 

         buried their dead in coffins.

                                             A-35

                    The Assyrian civil war between Ashurbanipal and his brother in 652

         B.C., signaled rebellion throughout the Assyrian Empire's vast reaches. 

         Ammon was able to save themselves from total destruction by rebels be-

         cause of their own stout defenses and Assyrian aid.  Arabs did exert some 

         influence on Ammon, as evidenced by Arabic personal names found on 

         Ammonite seals, some of which were women officials.   Around 610 B.C., 

         Ammon occupied the tribal lands of Gad and were independent for 10 years.

                    In 599 B.C., Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon required the Ammonite's 

         cooperation in plundering the Arabs.  Ammon was under Babylonian con

         trol only until 593 B.C., when Ammon joined in a conspiracy with Edom, 

         Moab, Tyre, and Sidon,  with a promise of support from Egypt.  Ammon en-

         couraged and aided in the assassination of the Judean governor.  

                    The only thing we know of Babylon's response is that by 550 B.C. 

         most of the original population of Ammon was gone, most likely taken off 

         into exile as was Judah.  The Arabs had the run of the land, including the 

         cities, which lay in ruins.  Political order was not restored until the coming

         of the Persians in 530 B.C.   Ammon may have had a Jewish governor at

         this time, named Tobiah.

                    Following the conquest of Alexander and the division of his empire, 

          the control of Ammon passed to the Egyptian Ptolemies.   Around 260 B.C., 

         there was another Tobiah running Ammon, this time as the Egyptian mili-

         tary colony's head.  Arab encroachment into Ammon over a 600 year peri-

         od finally resulted in it becoming part of a Nabatean kingdom, until the Ro-

         mans incorporated Ammon into the Roman Empire.

 AMNON (אמנון, faithful) 1.  David's oldest son, born at Hebron of Ahinoam from

        Jezreel.   The only event known is his rape of his half-sister.   His half-bro-

        ther Absalom avenged the rape by slaying Amnon.    2.  A son of Shimon and

        a remote descendant of Judah. 

 AMOK (עמוק, deep, unsearchable)  A priest in the group that returned from 

         exile with Zerubbabel, and the ancestor of a priestly family. 

 AMON  (אמון, trustworthy reliable, faithful)    1.  Governor of the city of Samaria 

         in the reign of Ahab. 

                    2.  King of Judah around 642-640 B.C.; son and successor of Ma-

         nasseh. He was from the northern kingdom (Israel), even though he ruled 

         the southern kingdom of Judah.   This helps show the close connection 

         Amon maintained with the North at this time.  Amon followed in his father Ma-

         nasseh's footsteps; he owed allegiance to Assyria, and worshiped their gods.

         Amon was murdered by his servants, but the murder was not popular; the 

         murderers were executed, and Amon's son Josiah was put on the throne. 

                    3. A descendant of Solomon's servant who returned from the exile. 

         4. Amon-Ra, Egypt’s imperial god, whose chief center of worship was the 

         temple of Karnak in Thebes.      5. Part of the Hebrew name for Thebes. 

 AMORITES  (אמרי, from the land west of Mesopotamia)  The inhabitants of the 

         land called Amurru.  The exact extent and place where the Amorites lived is

         unknown; it may have been Syria and at least part of Palestine. 

                    The Amorites were a Canaanite tribe in the mountainous region of 

         Judah and just east of the Jordan with its Amorite kingdoms of Heshbon 

         and Bashan.   It is possible that Jerusalem was an Amorite town before the 

         Israelites came.    According to the Old Testament (OT) conceptions, which 

         used myth as much as history to explain things and people, the Amorites 

         were tall, like mythical giants. 

                    Around 2400 B.C., the Old Akkadian king Sargon made an expedi-

         tion to Amurru for building supplies.  Gudea, king of Lagash fetched marble

         from Amurru around 2000 B.C. Amurru's center at this time was Mari.  From 

         the region of Mari, some Amorites pushed eastward shortly after 2000, and

         conquered the last Sumerian kingdom.  The Amorites tended to merge with 

         the people already living in the areas they moved into.   Babylon's Hammu-

         rabi of put an end to the Amorite Empire and conquered Mari.

                   The Mari (Amorite) Texts throw light upon the Amorite civilization from

         2000-1500; in the Mari kingdom, a high standard of civilization existed.  Fine

         examples of art and ceramics have been unearthed from this period.   The 

         language of the Amorites was closely related to the Canaanite and has a 

         number of features in common with it; also, Aramean language developed 

         from Amorite.  Its role in biblical Hebrew's growth was very important; some

         words that are found in the OT are also found in the Mari (Amorite) Texts 

         and nowhere else.  It appears that the tribe of Benjamin is mentioned in the 

         Mari, Texts, described in a way very similar to how they are described in

         the OT.

                                               A-36

                    Between 1400-1200 B.C., a number of independent Amorite city-   

         states existed, one of which had Kadesh as its center, located on the Oron-

         tes.  This is where the Egyptians under Ramses II fought the Hittites.  The 

         Sea People's invasion and the Hittite wars made an end to the independent 

         Amorite kingdoms in Syria.   Some Amorite kingdoms collaborated with the 

         Habiru, of which the Hebrews were a part.   So the Amorite played an impor-

         tant role in the growth of the Israelite nation. 

  AMOS  (עמוס, bearer of burden)  In order of Biblical appearance, this prophetic   

         book ranks 3rd out of 12.  In the order of when they were written in history,

         this is the first. There were prophets in Israel for centuries before the time

         of Amos, and many of a stature comparable with any of the later prophets. 

         Yet, none of them took in hand the collection of their oracles before Amos.

                    Amos scornfully disassociates himself from the official prophets' 

         guild.  The writing prophets seemed so unlike the guild ones, who used mu-

         sic and trances, and who often yielded to the temptation of adjusting their

         oracles to satisfy the pleasure of their customers.   But when we find in their

         midst a Nathan and Micaiah, we have to recognize that, in spite of all cor-

         ruptions, a genuine prophetic tradition was kept alive in these guilds.  

                    Amos condemns their corruption, and in fact became a prophet only 

         because guild prophets were failing to discharge their genuine office.  There

         has been considerable discussion whether or not Amos ever acknowledged    

         himself to be a prophet, or even which of the 2 kinds of prophets he was de-

         nying association with.  What was it about Amos' work that began the tradi-

         tion of written prophecy?  

                    To Amos, his prophetic activity was in no way novel; he was only do-

         ing what God had always intended a faithful prophet to do.  But the way

         Amos prophesied, along with the swiftness with which his words were vali-

         dated by historical events, caused some to preserved his oracles.  Then, 

         as men discovered the power of the written word to capture the prophetic

         spirit and mission, it became the practice for those under the influence of a 

         prophet to record his sayings.

                    Amos, like Jesus, was a layman with no professional training for a 

         religious office.  He was a shepherd and a pincher of sycamore fruit, which 

         had to be pinched so that it could be eaten when ripe; only the poor ate this 

         fruit.  As a shepherd, Amos was familiar with lions, and locusts, stars and 

         harsh rural poverty.  With eyes sharpened by the frugal, austere life of his 

         desert regions, and the insights of faith that came from earlier prophets, 

         Amos examines the life of urban Israel and comes to the conclusion that it 

         is ripe for judgment.

                    Amos, when he took up his prophetic task, went from Tekoa, 16 km 

         south of Jerusalem, walked past Jerusalem and delivered his oracles at Be-

         thel and Samaria, 18 and 51 km further north, respectively.   For Amos, (nor-

         thern) Israel and (southern) Judah were one people of God, and the stronger 

         leadership of the nation in his time was Samaria rather than Jerusalem; so 

         he delivered his message in the north.

                    It shouldn't be surprising that a Judean shepherd should have a deep 

         appreciation of his people's religious heritage.  Rudeness of occupation and 

         rudeness of thought don't go hand in hand.  It was from such peasant homes 

         that many of Israel's greatest leaders came.  His occupation would take him 

         to markets as far north as Damascus.  Because his God is Lord of all the 

         earth, his vision embraces all the nations with which the Hebrews had any 

         contact. 

                    Amos saw the advancing Assyrians as God's judgment.  Because it 

         was an axiom of his faith that a holy and just God could be served only by

         a nation that reflected in its life the holiness and justice of God, he had 

         eyes where others were blind to see the peril in which Israel was placed by

         the dishonesty of its courts, the maltreatment of its poor, and the corruption

         of its upper classes.  

                    It was the silence of the professional prophets that forced the layman 

         Amos to become a prophet. The professionals were blind to realities which 

         were plain to his eyes.  They let themselves and the truth be silenced by so-

         cial pressures.  God took him from following the flock and sent him as a pro-

         phet to his people, to say what no one else had the courage to say.

                    The times from 800 to 750 B.C. seemed especially good for Israel

         and Judah. The Assyrian Adadnirari III crushed Damascus and Syria.   The 

         Palestinian states had little to fear from the Syrians for many years.   King 

         Jehoash of Israel quickly recaptured border cities that Syria had seized in its 

         days of power.  Israel was free to extend her borders and also to control 

         trade routes of the ancient world that now passed through her territory. 

                                       A-37

                    But common people had no share in this new wealth.   Rather, they 

         found themselves at the mercy of the land-hungry and power-hungry upper 

         classes.  Small  farmers were dispossessed to make large estates pos-

         sible.   Israel quickly developed 2 classes:  the dissolute rich and the embit-

         tered poor.  Priests and prophets at the sanctuaries benefited sufficiently 

         from the lavish offerings that they weren't inclined to do or to say anything

         that might dampen the mood of confidence.

                    The date of Amos' message is uncertain.  The popular mood of con-

         fidence and no fear of invasion points to around 760 B.C.  Amos' predic-

         tion of doom was based not on developments in Assyria, but upon convic-

         tions that such corruption and unfaithfulness as he saw in Israel could not 

         long remain unpunished by God. 

                    The length of Amos' ministry is also uncertain; it may have been only

         a few months or less.   The termination of his ministry took place in Bethel.   

         Amos's sharp critique of the existing order, his prediction of an invasion, and

         his prediction of the fall of the royal house brought charges of treason, and 

         sharp criticism from the priest Amaziah, who assumed that his message of 

         doom was to blackmail the rich into paying for a more cheerful oracle, some-

         thing that was not uncommon in those days. 

                    There was disagreement as to whether Amos' oracles were oral or 

         written 1st.  The biographical passage indicates an editor who was familiar

         with at least the closing period of Amos' mission.   The fact that the Judean 

         king was named before Israel's king indicates a Judean editor, who added 

         verses to make the message apply more directly to Judah.  Also possibly ad

         ded later was the book's optimistic conclusion.  Similar hopeful prophecies 

         were added to other oracles of doom.  There is disagreement as to whether 

         this was a part of Amos' original message or not.   There is also disagree-

         ment as to the original relationship of the oracle section and the visions sec-

         tion of the book.

                    The oracles of Amos are cast in a poetic form, which is eminently 

         suited to their content.  The poetry itself is powerful in its simplicity and is 

         rarely surpassed by any other prophet in its beauty and vividness.  The 

         style is simply the man himself speaking at white heat the truth that bur-

         dens him in phrases that he hopes may cut through the callous hide of 

         his hearers and find a place in their memories.  Twice the prophet prevails

         upon God to withhold judgment, and then, the third time he was unable to    

         restrain judgment any longer. 

                    Saying that Amos is a prophet of God's wrath, and that Hosea is a 

         prophet of love misses the underlying purpose of Amos' message.  For it 

         was the covenant of love between God and Israel that made God more se-

         vere in his dealings with Israel than with any other nation.  Amos' hope, not

         for the nation as a whole, but for individuals sent him north to brave the in-

         sults of priests and people, that some might hear and live. 

                    The covenant is implied in his conception of the relation between 

         God and Israel.  What Amos rejected was the popular interpretation that the

         covenant was somehow legally binding on God and and exclusive to Israel 

         and granted them special privileges.   Rather, it  laid upon them special re-

         sponsibilities to reflect in their lives the justice and truth and mercy of God. 

                    Amos said, “Do this (repent), and you shall live.”  It would bring about 

         a restoration of humankind to a true relationship with God.  It is significant

         that Amos never speaks of God as “the God of Israel," but rather “the Lord 

         of hosts.”  Where king, priests, prophets and people saw “the day of Yah-

         weh” as a day which would finalize and guarantee their nation's success, 

         Amos saw only darkness and disaster.   Amos rejected idol worship, not for

         the idols alone, but also for the delusion that God could be kept favorable

         toward the nation by the offering of sacrifices and by the ritual of the cult.  

                    The heart of Amos' faith was the conviction that only a nation in 

         which the people dealt justly with one another can be a nation in covenant 

         The rampant corruption and injustice were blemishes with God. upon the 

         national life, and were evidence of a deeper and more serious sickness.   It

         is the justice, holiness, and purity of God that calls for justice, holiness, and  

         purity in the common life of Israel.  In Amos, the prophetic faith of Israel, 

         came to a new focus and found expression in in a way that was the founda-

         tion of a new era. 

 AMOZ  (אמוץ, strong)  The father of Isaiah, not to be confused with Amos.  

                                A-38  

 

AMPHIPOLIS (Amφιπολις, around city)  Capital city of Macedonia’s 1st district, 

         located on the River Strymon, about 4.8 km inland from the sea; the river

         surrounds the city on the north, west, and south.  In 497 B.C., Aristagoras of

         Miletus tried to settle here, but was driven away and slain by the resident 

         Edoni.   In 480 B.C., Xerxes crossed the river here as he invaded Greece.   

         In 437 B.C., Hagnon, Nikias’ son, brought more Athenians, who drove out the 

         Edoni and settled there.  In 167 B.C., the Romans made Amphipolis the chief 

         city of the 1^st of Macedonia's 4 districts.  Archaeologists have found the foun-

         dations of a Christian basilica there. 

 AMPLIATUS  (Amπλιαtος, enlarged)  A common name, frequently given to 

         slaves.  Ampliatus lived in the community—probably Ephesus—to which 

         Phoebe was about to journey. It appears he bore some intimate and affec-

         tionate relation to Paul.

 AMRAM (עמרם, kinsman is exalted) 1. Son of Kohath, grandson of Levi.  He 

         married his father's sister, Jochebed, and was father to Aaron and Moses. 

         The Amramites served in the wilderness sanctuary and temple treasuries. 

         2.  One of the sons of Bani who married foreign wives in the time of Ezra. 

 AMRAPHEL (אמרפל) An ally of Chedorlaomer who joined a punitive cam-

         paign against 5 kings in southern Palestine. This group was then defeated

         by Abram the Hebrew and his allies.   Neither the man nor his territory has

         been identified with certainty. 

 AMULETS  Small objects of symbolic meaning, worn around the neck to ward 

         off evil. Amulets as a general term aren't mentioned in the Bible.   Many 

         things mentioned and worn in the Bible could be taken for amulets, inclu-

         ding the phylacteries that were worn and the capsules fixed on doorpost;   

         both contained Bible passages. Amulets were used a lot in Old Testament 

         times, judging from the quantities and varieties found in excavations. 

         They were made of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, of soft stone   

         covered with glaze.   They represent anything from Egyptian deities, to ani-

         mals, to body parts.

                    The New Testament gives very little attention to the subject.  What 

         is most likely, especially in light of Paul's strong confidence in the complete

         effectiveness of the Name and Power of Jesus, is that amulets were re-

         garded as among the magic arts and as covert idolatry.

 AMZI  (אמצי, my strong one) 1. An ancestor of Ethan, who was a son of Me-

         rari and a temple singer.      2. An ancestor of Adaiah, a post-exilic priest in

         Jerusalem.

 ANAB  (ענב, grape)  A city in the hill country of Judah 24 km southwest of He-

         bron, near Debir, from which the Anakim were expelled by Joshua.

 ANAH  (ענה)  1.  The father of Oholibamah and son of Zibeon.    2.  The fourth   

         son of Seir; a clan chief of native Horites in Edom. 

 ANAHARATH  (אנחרת)  A town in Issachar 3.2 km south of Endor, also men-

         tioned in the list of towns captured by Thut-mose III. 

 ANAIAH (עניה, Yahweh has answered)  A man who stood at Ezra's right h and

         as he read the book of the law of Moses, and one who set his seal to the 

         covenant. 

 ANAK  (ענק, neck, necklace)  A tribe of the pre-Israelite population of Palestine.  

         In Hebrew tradition the Anakim are described as a tall people, whose gigan-

         tic size struck terror into the hearts of the Hebrews. They are identified 

         with southern Palestine, especially Hebron; they originally occupied a much

         wider area. The Egyptians mentioned the Anak in their Execration (cursing) 

         Texts. 

 ANAMIM  (ענמים)  A tribe or nation listed among the descendants of Egypt in 

         Genesis.  The Anamim cannot be identified with any known ethnic group;  

         they might be the people of or near Cyrene. 

                                A-39  

ANAMMELECH (ענמלך, probably Anu is king)  One of the deities worshiped 

         by the people from Sepharvaim. 

 ANAN (ענן, a cloud)  A name on the list of signers of the Nehemiah covenant. 

 ANANI (ענני, cloud)  The seventh son of Elioenai, descendant of Zerubbabel in

         the list of David's offspring. 

 ANANIAH (ענניה, Yahweh has shown himself) 1. Grandfather of Azariah, who 

         participated in rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem under Nehemiah.      2. A

         village of Benjamin listed as occupied by Jews after the Exile. 

 ANANIAS  (חנניה, Yahweh is gracious) 1.  A Christian of Jerusalem; he sold a

         property belonging to him and held back a portion while pretending to give

         it all.  When faced with the facts, he and his wife fell down dead. 

                    2. A Christian disciple living in Damascus at the time of Paul's arrival 

         there after his conversion experience on the way there.   He may have been 

         there as a result of the persecution originating in Jerusalem, persecutions 

         which Paul played major part in.   Putting aside his fears, Ananias went boldly 

         to Paul, greeting him as a Christian brother.   We have no further solid data 

         concerning this Ananias.

                    3.  A Jewish high priest before whom Paul was tried after his arrest 

         in Jerusalem.  He appears again among those accusing Paul before Felix.  

         Ananias was acquitted in Rome for his part in a conflict between the Sama-

         ritans and the Jews.  Because of his severity, cruelty, and long collaboration 

         with the Romans, he was hunted down and murdered by Jews at the begin-

         ning of the Jewish war of 66-70 A.D.

ANATH (ענת, answer) The father of Shamgar, one of the pre-dynastic judges in

        Israel. 

ANATHEMA  (αναθemα)  It originally was used for something dedicated to a

        divinity.  It developed the special meaning of being “devoted to a divinity 

        (idol)” and so was an accursed thing.  It was part of the beginning of the 

        concept of excommunication. 

ANATHOTH (ענתות, answers) A priestly city in Benjamin, short for “Beth-ana-

        thoth,”  which means “the great Anath’s house.”   This would indicate that

        the city was the shrine of this important Canaanite goddess; it was trans-

        formed by the Israelites into their own sacred city.   The city was the pro-

        phet Jeremiah’s birthplace, and where he first attempted prophecy; these 

        were met with disapproval, as the prophet predicted an evil fate for Ana-

        thoth’s citizens.   He later sought to redeem a plot of land which had be-

        longed to his cousin.  In Nehemiah’s time the place was settled by Benjami-

        nites.  The ruins are located roughly 4.2 km. northwest of Jerusalem.   

ANCHOR (αγκυρα (ag ku rah) The first anchors were heavy stones let down 

        from the bow of a ship.  By 650 B.C., wooden anchors of hook form and 

        weighted by metal or stone were in use in the Mediterranean.  A little later 

        anchors appeared in a form familiar to us now.  The description of Paul's  

        sea voyage to Rome informs us that the ship let down four anchors as it 

        approached Malta. 

ANCIENT OF DAYS (עתיק יומין, (aw theek  yow main))  The phrase used to

        designate the judge in the Judgment Day scene in Daniel.  The 1^st Hebrew 

        word's exact meaning is “removed, passed on.”  The phrase is meant to 

        describe God; “ancient” is meant to convey a sense of wisdom, and exis-

        tence long before our own. 

ANDREW (Aνδρeας, (an dray as), manly )  Son of Jonah, brother of Simon 

        Peter and one of the first disciples of Jesus.  His family lived in Bethsaida, 

        the capital city of Herod Philip (4 B.C.-34 A.D.), located on the northeast 

        corner of the Sea of Galilee.  Simon and Andrew probably spoke Greek 

        and Aramaic. 

                                         A-40

                   Simon, Andrew, Zebedee, James, and John were partners in a fishing

        business.   Andrew was open to new ideas; he was very teachable, so when

        the truth became clear to him, he followed it enthusiastically.   Andrew first

        followed John the Baptist, who proclaimed Jesus as the Messiah.   Andrew

        became convinced of Jesus' messiahship and brought Simon to follow Jesus

        also.   Andrew's wholehearted response, and that of his comrades tesifies to

        the depth of their attachment to Jesus.   Andrew apparently was among the

        first persons named by Jesus for a place in the apostolic band.

                   Andrew is associated with Philip, the only other apostle with a Greek 

        name, when the 2 of them discuss with Jesus the caring for the multitude at

        the miracle of the loaves and fishes.   Andrew is mentioned again with his 

        Galilean associates in connection with an inquiry concerning Last Things. 

        After this, Andrew drops out of sight in the New Testament.   (For his later 

        life, see also the “Andrew, Acts of” entry in the New Testament Apocrypha 

        section of the Appendix.) 

ANDRONICUS (Aνδρονικος, conqueror of men)   A man whom Paul asks the 

        recipients of Romans 16 to greet.  He and Junias are identified as relatives 

        of Paul.  Both of these people had been prisoners along with Paul, and 

        had been Christians before Paul. 

ANEM (ענם)  A town in Issachar assigned to Gershom's sons, probably 12.8 

        km east-southeast of Mount Tabor. 

ANER  (ענר)  1.  One of three Amorite brothers who were allies of Abram. 

        2.  A city of refuge in Manasseh

ANGEL (מלאך (mal awk); αγγeλος (agh gheh los)) Today, an angel is both

        a messenger from God and a spiritual being.   In the earlier Bible portions, 

        however, a distinction was made, because while every divine messenger  

        is regarded as a spiritual being, not every spiritual being was a divine mes-

        senger.   Later in the Old Testament (OT) and in the New Testament (NT) 

        this distinction breaks down. 

                   The usual Hebrew word for angel—malak—means simply “messen-

        ger, envoy.”   Their main functions are: to convey the mandates of God to 

        men; to announce special events; to protect the faithful; and to serve as in-

        struments of the divine displeasure to sinners.  It was an angel who ordered 

        Abraham not to sacrifice his only son; reassured Jacob in his long labors for 

        Laban, and protected him from mishap; indicated to Moses the special na-

        ture of the burning bush; and fed  Elijah in the desert, just to mention a few.  

                   Angels appear to men in human form and often without being recog-

        nized as angels.   The idea of heavenly messengers has its roots in earlier

        pagan religions.   The god Baal, who controlled the rain, and the god Mot, 

        who was in charge of death and dryness, communicated with each other 

        through divine messengers.   Most of the early Biblical stories told about 

        angels play upon motifs familiar from the folklore of other peoples, with the 

        angels taking the place of lesser spiritual beings such as demons, fairies and 

        even trolls.   The idea that some angels are sent for good others for evil 

        can also be found in a Hittite text, which speaks of 2 groups of fairies, one 

        sent to households that pleased the gods, and one sent to households that 

        displeased the gods.

                   The story of how Abraham entertained 3 angels unawares and was 

        rewarded by the promise of a son is simply a Hebrew version of the wide-

        spread tale of hospitality rewarded.  The notion that angels commute be-

        tween heaven and earth by means of a ladder finds an exact parallel both

        in Egyptian texts and in Greek poetry.  Jacob's wrestling with the angel at

        the ford of the River Jabbok can be likened to that of the traveler who has to 

        grapple with the supernatural being of the river, who must be back to his 

        river by daybreak.  Lastly, the story of how Elijah was supplied by an angel

        with water and a single cake connects at once with the common folk tale 

        motifs of languishing heroes fed by spiritual beings.

                   The earlier portions of the OT recognize winged celestial beings 

        called cherubim and seraphim.  The cherubim stand sentinel over the way 

        to the tree of life and also flank or support the throne of God.  Mounted on

        a cherub, Yahweh flies through the heavens.   Gold-covered wooden ima-

        ges of them were set over the ark of the covenant.

                   The seraphim are mentioned only in Isaiah, where nothing more is 

        said of them, other than that they are six-winged, stand beside God's throne 

        and intone his praises.  Both of these concepts go back to more ancient  

        Near Eastern folklore.  Some interpreters have recognized other classes of 

        angels, but both the text that deals with them and the interpretation of that 

        text is uncertain.

                                         A-41

 

                  After the Babylonian exile, the conception of angels undergoes pro-

        found change. Angels now come to be regarded, not merely as messengers 

        or as agents of particular situations and events, but as the controlling spirits 

        of nature.  They are believed to know the secrets of the cosmos.  Angels are 

        now pictured as a hierarchy, headed by archangels, with several distinct 

        ranks below them.   We now know these archangels by the names of 

        Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel.   Side by side with these innovations, 

        the older ideas persist.  They are still “the holy ones,” and there are still 

        cherubim and seraphim.  Later development of the concept of angels saw 

        them take on the familiar white robes and wings. 

                   Angels now serve not only as God's messengers to humankind, but 

        humankind's messenger to God.  Angels are now conceived of as an army, 

        and because of Persian dualism, a class of hostile angels (satans) emer-

        ges to oppose them.   These “satans” are subject to, rather than in depen-

        dent of Yahweh's authority; they are either rebels against or agents of 

        Yahweh's will.  Satan himself now appears as a distinct figure, though in the 

        OT, the name is still used only as a title.  Judaism split in how it regarded 

        angels.  Belief in angels, spirits, and resurrection was acknowledged by 

        Pharisees, which were the spokesmen of the common people.  These same 

        concepts were denied by the aristocratic Sadducees.

                   The NT adds nothing to the traditional concept of angels.  Here too, 

        they appear as messengers of special births:  Gabriel announced John the 

        Baptist's; and an identified celestial messenger announced Jesus'; an angel 

        warned Joseph to flee; an angel encouraged Jesus on the Mount of Olives;

        an angel rolled away the stone from Jesus' tomb; and an angel released 

        Peter from prison.  Angels surround the throne of God in heaven and chant 

        his praises.  “Everyone who acknowledges me before men, the Son of man 

        also will acknowledge before the angels of God; he who denies me . . . will 

        be denied before the angels.”

ANGELS OF THE SEVEN CHURCHES. Various interpretations of these figures

        include: the messengers sent to John by the churches of Asia; those chur-

        ches' bishops; the guardian angels of those churches; or their heavenly re-

        plicas. What seems most appropriate is to see them as the spiritual core or

        the ethically mature persons of the churches.

ANGER (אף (af); אנף (an af); οργe (or gay);   θυmος (thoo mos)).  In the 

        biblical view there is a qualitative and theological difference between hu-

        man anger on the one hand and divine anger on the other.   Anger is those 

        feelings and expression of strong aversion toward an object that have been 

        aroused by a sense of injury or wrong; it is not to be confused with hate or   

        jealousy. 

                   In Hebrew, the word literally means “nose,” which the Hebrew saw

        as the seat of anger. The verb meaning “burn” refers nearly always to the 

        kindling of anger.   Anger's presence may be implied by the language of jea-

        lousy, cursing, revenge, violence, rebellion and by descriptions of physical 

        reactions associated with anger. Divine wrath is distinguished from human 

        anger by expressing the former through combinations of 2 or even 3 terms 

        for anger in succession.

                   While anger is appreciated in both the Old Testament (OT) and 

        New Testament (NT) as something inherent in man's personal and social 

        existence, it isn't viewed as a thing to be treated with indifference.   Often 

        it helps to provoke a change in human relationships with one's fellows or 

        with the deity.  The Israelite monarchy is created as a result of Samuel's 

        anger with the people's demand for different leadership.  

                   Saul is rejected as king out of anger.  The monarchy is divided in

        anger.  In the Old Testament, one finds a qualified justification of anger,

        insofar as it operates in faith and piety's service of  and in the defense of 

        justice.  The fury of Moses or the anger of the prophets at the faithless-

        ness, immorality, and injustice of the people is both a very human expres-

        sion, and an expression of God's wrath. 

                   The NT writers find fewer occasions to concede that anger has a 

        positive role.  Jesus responded with anger at the Pharisees judgment of

        his ministry and at the use of the temple as a marketplace.  This prophe-

        tic anger and indignation that Jesus displays on a number of occasions 

        would seem to leave open the possibility of the redemptive use of this 

        human passion.

                   The profession of righteous anger can turn into premature assump-

        tions that human interests are identical to God's, or that one knows what 

        the will of God is such as Job's assumption that he is being punished, or 

        Paul's assumption that persecution of the Christians was God's will.  Nega-

        tive judgments of anger are found in the wisdom literature and in the midst 

        of the prophetic writings of the OT.  The general view of the NT is that “the

        anger of man does not work the righteousness of God.”

                                        A-42

                   The prophetic condemnation of human wrath in the Bible isn't based 

        on a rejection of anger in principle, but rather it shows deference to God's 

        wrath; God is the most fitting dispenser of wrath.  It's significant that human 

        agents who serve as divine instruments of the divine anger also become its 

        chief victims shortly thereafter, cut down by the same passion that they 

        wielded over others.  Anger plays such a pivotal role in Biblical events that 

        it cannot be seen as purely good or purely bad when involved in issues of 

        faith and conduct.  Although the Bible appreciates the possibility of righte-

        ous and even redemptive anger, it is only a human anger subservient to the

        will of God that can praise God.

ANGLE, THE (המקצוע (ham mack ets o ah), The angle (or corner)) A portion

        of the ramparts of Jerusalem by the palace fortified by Uzziah and restored 

        under Nehemiah.

ANIAM (אניעם, people's mourning, or I am kinsman)  The fourth son of She-

        mida in the genealogy of Manasseh. 

ANIM  (ענים, springs)  A city in the SW hill country district of Judah, about 17.6 

        km south of Hebron. 

ANIMAL Every translation and every commentary of the Bible has had to deal 

        with words which include names of animals.  Almost none of these transla-

        tors or commentators has had any knowledge of animals, and still less of 

        the animals of the Holy Land. 

           List of Topic—1.  History and Introduction;     2. Dome-

     stic Mammals;     3. Cattle;    4. Wild Mammals;     5. Birds

       6. Reptiles;      7. Insects.

                   1.  History and Introduction—The most complete study on the ani-

        mals of the Bible is  the Hieroziocon (1663) by Samuel Bochartus of Caen;

        this study was purely a word study of tradition, and the meaning of each 

        word in other Semitic languages.  Frederick Hasselquist of Uppsala actu-

        ally visited the Holy Land in 1752.  In his Iter Palaestinum, he began with

        interpretation of biblical names. But he assumed  that no changes had oc-

        curred in what kind of animals were present in the Holy Land.  He denied 

        the presence of lions in Biblical times, because none were present in the 

        1700s.  Even the marvelous Fauna & Flora of Palestine (London, 1884) of 

        the Canon Henry Baker Tristam of Durham was unable to identify a very 

        lage number of biblical animals. 

                   The vast majority of animal names we see in the Bible are used

        only once or twice.  As such, we are still unable to give and probably will 

        always be unable to give a true interpretation of them.  Pure word study 

        has long since been abandoned as a method of identifying an animal when 

        there is no other evidence to back the conclusions reached.  Still less relia-

        ble are the conclusions reached from the study of animal names in other 

        languages. In addition, we know that the animal a name identifies can 

        change over centuries.

                   In certain cases the interpretation became clear, once the actual 

        animals of Palestine were known.  Any lack of knowledge about different

        animals living in different parts of the world is due to the fact that, in past

        centuries, knowledge of such differences did not exist.  Even in modern

        Hebrew, animal names are used, whose meanings we still do not know, or

        even which identify an animal completely different from the one intended

        in the Bible.  For instance,  the אבוסים ברברים (bar boor eem  ab oh

        seem) of Solomon's table are not "fattened swans," but "fattened geese." 

        Barborim is the modern word for swan, but actually meant "geese" in Solo-

        mon's time. 

                   2. Domestic Mammals—The animal names in the New Testament

        (NT) are almost all clearly identified. Many of those in the Old Testament

      (OT), however, are “names without meaning,” except for domestic animals,

        most big carnivores, and a few other mammals.  The horse (סוס (soos); 

        ιππος (hip pos)) is believed to have been introduced into the Middle East 

      from Persia by the Hyksos, invading  Egypt early in the 1000s B.C.  But re- 

        recently, horse's bones  have been discovered in a settlement of the Negeb 

        in the Chalcolithic period (4000-3200 B.C.).  The horse was not in common 

        use by Hebrews until the times of David and especially Solomon, whose 

        horse stables are well known.  It is even probable that he was the center of 

        an important trade of horses in the Middle East.

                   The local ass (חמור (kham ore), male ass; אתון (aw thone), fe-

        male ass; ονος (on os), donkey, ass) is clearly a descendant of the wild

        Nubian ass, recognizable by its black shoulder and back stripes.  Before 

        the camel, the ass was a very efficient “ship of the desert."  The mule 

        (פרד( (peh red)) is mentioned beginning with the time of King David.  

        While used in Israel, it was forbidden to breed mules, as the creation of a

        new breed, such as the combination of ass and horse, was against religi-

        ous law. 

                                        A-43

                   The swine (חזיר (khats eer); χοιρος (khoy ros)) was on the un-

        clean animals' list, but they were kept by the Canaanite pagans.  The one-

        humped camel or dromedary (גמל (gaw maul); καmeλος (kam ay los)) 

        is mentioned in the days of the patriarchs and is also an unclean animal

        What looks like domestic camels appear already around 7000 B.C. in rock

        carvings from extreme eastern Palestine.  The Midianites are the 1st illu-

        stration of any raid of camel Bedouins into the settled land (Judges 7).  The

        domestication of the wild camel began with using them for wool and milk; 

        then it passed slowly to the use of light burdens, and it ended in the fully 

        established “partnership” between Bedouins and camels; this process took 

        1000s of years. 

                   3. Cattle—(בהמה (be hay mah); מקנה (mik neh), cattle as pro-

        perty; צאן (tseh own), herd of cattle; θρemmα (threm mah), livestock) in 

        the Bible have many names (שור (shore), bull, cow, ox; פר (pawr), bull, 

        calf, ox; עגל (ay ghel), bullock, calf).  Ancient Israel important wealth wasn't

        used for milk or for meat production; cattle were the usual animals for the 

        drawing the plow.  It was a small cattle, like the present Beiruti race. 

                   The goat was common and had many names: שעיר (saw eer), 

        male goat; עז (‘aze), female goat; צפיר (tsaw feer), male goat; eριφος 

        (er if os), goat, kid; tραγος  (trag os), gnawing male goat)).  Since oldest 

        times goats have contributed to extreme erosion in the hill country, by tea-

        ring the plant out of the soil.  Sheep, on the other hand, cuts plants above 

        the soil.  Sheep (צאן (tseh own), flock; כשב (keh seb), lamb, sheep, 

     כבש (kab saw), ewe; שה (say), member of a flock; איל (ah yil), ram; 

       προβαtον (prob at on), sheep), as suppliers of wool, milk, and meat 

        were the greatest wealth of the patriarchs.

                   Dogs (כלב (keh leb); κυναριον (koo nar ee on), puppy; κυων 

        (koo ohn), hound) were common in ancient Palestine.  No personal relations 

        existed between people and dogs, but a pack of dogs was impersonally 

        linked to a settlement.  The dog was despised as a scavenger.  Cats aren't 

        mentioned in the Bible.   The Egyptians domesticated it first in their temples.  

        As a pagan idol it was taboo to the Jews; hence it is not mentioned. 

                   4. Wild Mammals—The only name given for bats (עטלף (at al 

        lafe)) in the Bible is the common name for all bats.  3 species of hedgehog 

        are common in Palestine, but no certain identification of them can be made 

        from the Bible.  The current Hebrew word for hedgehog occurs in the Bible, 

        but scholars cannot positively identify it as a hedgehog.

                   The wolf (זאב (zeh abe)) was common in the times of the Bible all 

        over Palestine, and posed a threat to sheep.  The jackal (שועל (shoo 

        awl), while the Revised Standard Version (RSV) uses jackal, the King 

        James Version (KJV) uses "fox") is one of the most common and conspicu-

        ous mammals of the country still today.  Its nightly wailing makes it impos-

        sible to overlook it.  The fox  (αλωπηx (al oh pakes)) is fairly common in 

        Palestine, but by far not so conspicuous and noisy as the jackals.  The 

        hyena (צבוע (tsaw boo ah)) is only mentioned in the Bible as a geogra-

        phical name (Valley of the Hyena) in I Samuel 13.

                   The lion has many names in the Bible (ארי (ar yay); לביא (law 

        be), lioness;  לביאה (leb ee aw), old lion; כפיר (kef eer), young lion; 

        λeων (leh ohn).  The last lion was killed in Palestine at Ledja near Megid-

        do in the 1200s A.D.  The local lion was of the Persian race.  The leopard       

        (נמר (naw mar)) is now almost extinct in Palestine, apart from temporary

        summer invasions of a few individuals from the Lebanon and Hermon moun-

        tain regions.  The bear (דב (dobe)) was fairly common in Bible times all 

        over the hilly country. It was a danger to fruit trees and to herds.

                   There can be no doubt that the biblical “rock badger” (שפן (shaw 

        fawn)) is the Syrian coney, which lives among the rocks from the Dead Sea 

        Valley to the Hermon.  The wild ass (פרא (peh reh); ערד (ar awd)) is the 

        Syrian onager, which was the only onager which lived in Bible times in Pale-

        stine.  It has been extinct for about 100 years in the Syrian Desert.  

                                            A-44

  

                   As to the Behemoth (בהמות), it has long been wrongly identified 

        with the hippo in Job 40, but has the same meaning as elsewhere in the 

        Bible,namely "beast," or "wild beast."  The wild boar (חזיר  (khats eer)) is 

        still common in swamps, but has disappeared from the rest of the country.  

        Its survival was possible because Jews, Muslims, and many of the native   

        Christians do not eat it. 

                   The interpretation of the terms for deer (איל (aw yil), male deer; 

        יחמור (yakh moor), fallow deer; צבי (tseb ee), roe roebuck, gazelle) 

        is rather complicated.  3 species lived there, all still surviving in the nor-

        thern part of the Middle East, but none any longer in Palestine.  The 3 

        are:  red deer; fallow deer; and roe deer.  The Hebrew names for these 

        deer are very uncertain.  Ayil is apparently the general name for “deer.”

                   The red deer was certainly present in Bible times, as can be seen

      from wall-drawings, but we are unable to associate any biblical quotations 

        with this species.  The other two species were certainly common in that 

        time.  Yakhmor seems to be the fallow deer, but we remain without any 

        clear cut biblical name for the common roe deer.  Some wild goats, ox, ibex 

        are identifiable; many are not.  Among the identifiable are the Wild Ox 

        (ראם (rame), King James Version uses “unicorn”).  They may not have

        lived in Palestine in biblical times, but they were plentiful in northern Meso-

        potamia.  The symbol of beauty is gazelle (צבי (tseb ee), gazelle, roebuck) 

        throughout the Bible.  The last of the identifiable species is the Nubian  Ibex

        (יעל (yaw ale). 

                   Less certain is the identity of the “antelope” (דישון (dee shone)); it

        is on a list of unclean animals in Deuteronomy 14.  It is possible that it is the 

        Arabian Oryx. There are other animals, such as the addax, the hartebeest, 

        and the barbarian wild sheep, that must be excluded because no satisfac-

        tory evidence exists for their existence in biblical Palestine.  Absolutely uni-

        dentifiable are: the “wild goat” and “antelope” of Deuteronomy 14.  The 

        anaqah of Levitcus 11 may be a small mammal, or it may be a lizard. 

                   The common hare (ארנבת (ar neh beth)) is the Palestine hare.  

        A very characteristic animal in the landscape of the Mediterranean part of 

        the country is the Syrian mole rat (חפר פרות (khaf ar  pay rawth)). 

        There is no actual mole in Palestine.  The general word for all small rodents,

        and especially the mouse is akbar (עכבר).

                   The elephant is no native of Palestine. But around 1500 B.C., the In-

        dian elephant lived in the Orontes Valley.  In Maccabean times, elephants

        were used in the armies of the Diadoches as tank units are used in modern 

        armies.  Apes קופ)) (kofe)) and parrots are mentioned in I Kings 10, al-

        though some scholars believe that the word generally translated as “parrot” 

      or “peacock” could be instead a species of monkey related to the ape. The

        Leviathan (לויתן) is an old mythological creature, certainly not specifically

        referring to the “whale.”  

                   5. Birds—Several words are used as general terms for big birds of 

        prey (עיט )  (ah yit); נשר (nesh ar); αetοσ (ah et os)).  All the smal-

        ler diurnal birds of prey are nates (נץ).  The identification of the vultures 

        (פרם (paw ram); kites (דאה (daw aw); איה (ah yaw); ראה (raw aw)),     

        and osprey (עזניה (oz nee yaw)), is still only a probable one. 

                   The owls (קפוז (kip poze); לילית (lee leeth); ינשוף (yawn 

        shofe), great owl; כוס (koce), little owl ) of the Bible are still more difficult

        to identify.  To all these names of uncertain meaning, 2 more Hebrew words 

        and one phrase must be added, which are variously translated as “owl” or

        “ostrich.” 

                   The general class of birds which includes singing birds, swallows 

        and sparrows were called tsipor (צפור, little birds; דרור (der rore), bird, 

        swallow; πeteινον (pet eye non))  There is still some doubt as to the exact

        meaning of these words and another word for swallow (סוס (soos)).   

                                            A-45

                   The general name for ravens is orabe (עורב).  The general name 

        for herons is probably 'anapha (אנפה, heron, parrot, eagle).  There are 4 

        other words which are probably waterbirds, but there isn't very much agree-

        ment even on that. 2 names for dove are yonah and tore (יונה; תור, 

        turtledove).  

                   The barborim abosim (אבוסים ברברים (bar boor eem  ab oh 

        seem), fatted fowl) of Solomon's table aren't “fattened swans,” but “fattened 

        geese.”   Even though  barborim is the modern word for swan, it actually 

        meant “geese” in Solomon's time.  Hebrew seals from the Palestine of the 

        1,000 years before Christ show roosters, but there's little or no agreement 

        as to what Hebrew word is used for them.  

                   There is difficulty in translating the word that is generally under-

        stood as partridge (קורא (kore)).   Some believe it's part of a descrip-

        tion meant to imply domestic fowl, rather than an actual name.   There's

        widespread agreement as to the Hebrew word for quail (שלו (sel awv).

                   6. Reptiles—There is little that can be done about the final identi-

        fication of most of the reptiles. 1st, there are the mythological ones.  The

        Leviathan (לויתן) is the primordial dragon; tannin (תנין) is both mytho-

        logical creature and every big water-animal, in seas as well as rivers.   We 

        know the general name for fish (דג (dawg)); no specific fish is named in

        the Bible. 

                   The general name for lizards is leta'ah (לטאה). The Hebrew word 

        for frog (צפרדע (tsef ar day ah)) of the 2nd Egyptian plague has never 

        been doubted.   There are 4 other words that are probably lizards, but are 

        otherwise unidentifiable.   The “lizard” that builds its own palace in Proverb

        30, is a spider (שממית (sem aw meeth)).

                   The usual identification of specific snakes (נחש (naw khawsh); 

        οφις (of is), serpent)) seems to be wrong.   3 words are now used for spe-

        cific snakes (פתנ (peh then), asp; שפיפון (shef ee fone), adder; אפיה

         (ef eh), viper), while the biblical snake's identity remains unknown.  For in-

        stance, the Egyptian asp, while common in Egypt, does not occur in Pale-

        stine.  The biblical viper may be the Carpet Viper, a poisonous snake that is 

        common on the Jericho Plain.

                   7. Insects—In the Insect group, there is no doubt as to the word for 

        lice (כן (kane)) in general.  Of all the names for locusts and eventually 

        grasshoppers (ארבה (ar beh); ακρις (ak rece)) only the Hebrew and

        Greek word just given are certain; the Hebrew refers to the Desert Locust.

        3 more words are used for locust, which more probably refer to various sta-

        ges of the Desert Locust. “Bald Locust” (סלעם (sol awm)), "Cricket" 

        (חרגל (khar  gole)), and “Grasshopper” (חגב (khaw gawb)), are men-

        tioned as clean food in Leviticus 11.  The words may refer to the Desert 

      Locust's stages, but may equally refer to other groups of the order.  Locusts 

        were served as food to John the Baptist in Matthew 3; this is not regarded 

        as exceptional. 

                   Crimson scales or grubworm (תולעת שני (toe lah ath shaw 

       כרמיל   (kar meal)) are abundant in northern Palestine on various oaks.

        Females mature in March and April, when they reach pea-size.  The eggs 

        are taken from the mother and carefully rubbed into balls, from which  the

        crimson dye is extracted.   The manna of Exodus 16 and Numbers 11, is 

        the sweet excretion of 2 insects living on the twigs of the manna-tamarisk; 

        this phenomenon still occurs in the early summer in thewadis of the Sinai 

        mountains. 

                   Ants in general, and especially the Harvester Ant are called ne-

        mallah (נמלה).  The wasp or hornet (צרעה (tsir aw)) was regarded 

        in the Bible and by Egyptians as a symbol of military might.  The honey-        

        bee (דבורה (deb oh rah)), or more accurately its wild honey was sought

        out in the Bible; there is no biblical reference to beekeeping, which came 

        much later in the Jewish tradition.  

                   The cloth moth (עש  (awsh)), and most often its larva is referred

        to in the Bible as the massive destroyer of woolen clothing.  Many species 

        of Flies (זבוב (zeb oob)) live in Palestine near humans.  The gnat or mos-

        quito (ערב (aw robe), gnat, mosquito) of one of the Egyptian plagues 

        can't be positively identified; it may be the Harvester Gnat.   Insect larvae 

        in general are referred to as tolayah (תולעה).

                   The word for “snail” (שבלול (shab lool)), was actually not given 

        that meaning until the Middle Ages; otherwise it has no relation to any spe-

        cific animal.  The precious purple dyes were prepared on the Phoenician 

        coasts from 3 mollusks.   There's no dissension on the word for leeches 

        (עלוקה (al oo kaw)).   There's no disagreement about “scorpion” 

        (עקרבים (ak rawb eem)) or the general name for spider (עכביש (ak 

        kaw beesh)).  The words translated as “coral” are now believed to refer to a 

        precious wood, and the Hebrew word for “pearls” is actually a precious cry-

        stal.  The Greek word for pearls is margarites (mαργαριteς).

                                       A-46

ANIMAL WORSHIP  ( See Totemism)

ANISE ( See Cumin, Spices) 

ANKLETS  (עכסים (eh kes eem))  Ornamental rings worn above the ankles, 

        considered a luxury item by Isaiah.

 ANNA  (Aννα, grace)    1. An aged prophetess mentioned as witnessing infant 

         Jesus' presentation in the temple; apparently a counterpart to Simeon; no 

         record of her words are offered.     2.  The mother of Mary and grandmother

         of Jesus (See also the entry in the New Testament Apocrypha section of the

         Appendix.) 

 ANNAS  (חננה, gracious)  A high priest as the result of his appointment by Qui-

         rinius in 6 or 7 A.D.   The 1st of 4 high priests before Caiaphas came to of-

         fice.  His appointment was the longest of the four, lasting 8 or 9 years before 

         he  was replaced. 

 ANNIAS  (Aννeις )  Head of a family listed among those who returned to Jeru-

         salem with Zerubbabel. 

 ANNUNCIATION  The declaration by the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary that 

         she would bear Jesus, the Son of God. Gabriel's entire salutation forms the

         scriptural part of the 1000s A.D.  Ave Maria prayer. 

 ANOINT (סוך (sook); αλeιφeιν (al if in))  To smear or pour oil or ointment on

         the head or body of a person or on an object.  The Hebrews anointed them

         selves for a festive occasion.   The anointing had a connotation of gladness. 

         The guest's head was anointed.   The cosmetic practice of anointing is 

         widely attested in Near Eastern literature. The cooling and pain-soothing ef-

         fect of ointments, oils, and unguents prompted their frequent application in

         medical treatment.

                    Among objects consecrated by anointment were sacred stones, pil-

         lars, altar, and tabernacle with all its furnishings.  This consecration meant 

         these items weren't for secular use.  Among the people anointed, priests

         must be mentioned first; Aaron was anointed, and the high priest was desig-

         nated as “the anointed.”  It appears that prophets were also anointed, at

         least in some cases. 

                    Anointing kings was of primary importance.  The anointment of the

         king was not merely a part of the ceremony of enthronement; it was of deci-

         sive importance, for it conveyed the power for the exercise of authority; the

         king became a theocratic vassal, the Lord's anointed. The rite of the anoint-

         ment of the king was originally executed by a prophet.  Later, the right to

         anoint the king apparently became the exclusive privilege of the high priest.

         It is possible that the people had a hand in anointing the king, based on an

         cient tribal traditions; there's not much biblical tradition supporting this theory.

                   Saul, David, Solomon, Jehu, and Joash's anointing is reported in con-

         siderable detail. The title “the Lord's anointed” was shortened to “anointed,”

         or “Messiah,” which was “Christ” in Greek.  In the New Testament, Jesus

         was also anointed by God “with Holy Spirit and power,” and became “Jesus,

         the Christ.”  In the biblical period, it was customary to use perfumed oils and

         ointment for anointing the dead.  

 THE ANOINTED (משיה (ma si a))  See the article on Anoint. 

 ANT  (נמלה (na ma la), cutting)  Ants are social insects with 3 high developed 

         functions (male, female, and worker), each which aids in the colony's exis-

         tence.  One queen may serve a community of 20,000 to 500,000 ants.  The 

         scriptural references to ants deal with wisdom, foresight, or industrious-

         ness exercised in the summer by these insects in storing up food for winter.

         This aptly describes the harvester ant, which has nests near fields, thre-

         shing floors, or granaries. 

 ANTELOPE  (תאו (teh o))  This word describes all the animals not assigned to 

         the oxen, sheep, or goats species. In this class, the animal doesn't shed its

         horns. The gazelle was found in Palestine, but it is uncertain if any other 

         kind lived there. 

 ANTHROPOMORPHISM  Language that portrays the personal character of God

         by ascribing to God human characteristics and feelings.

 ANTICHRIST (Aνtιχρισtος) Mythical demonic or demonic-human adversary of 

         Christ who will appear before the 2nd Advent as the last oppressor and per-

         secutor of the Christians.  Closely associated with the Anti-christ is that of

         a pseudo-Christ, who will deceive and lead many astray.

                    The Anti-christ's origins are obscure.  He appears in the end times, 

         not as the history Jesus' adversary, but as the opponent of the Christ of

         Judgment Day on his return to Earth.   In the black or white belief in Judg-

         ment Day, the Anti-Christ was to Christ as Satan and demons was to God.

                    There are some Jewish prototypes for the Christian's Antichrist con-

         cept.   Among these is the account of Gog of Magog in Ezekiel, and the 

         cruel persecutor of the Jews in Daniel, depicted as a little horn, almost a 

         mythical person.   The apocrypha offers images of evil leaders and Jewish 

         oppressors.  Nero, who murdered his mother and committed suicide by 

         stabbing himself in the throat, came to be both anti-messiah and anti-christ 

         and took on an almost mythical quality.  These and similar patterns of 

         Jewish thought concerning oppressors of the Jews and the anti-messiah 

         provided sources for the Antichrist of Christian beliefs.

                                       A-47

                    An early, relevant Christian passage dealing with anti-christ is the

         Little Apocalypse of Mark 13.  Here, Jesus predicts that there will be many

         false Christs, who will perform signs and wonders and will deceive and lead

         people astray.   Thessalonians writes of a falling away, a defection, of Chris-

         tians.  “A lawless man” will appear, saying that he is God's Son.  Empowered 

         by Satan, he will perform signs and wonders; the Lord Jesus will slay him. 

         This prediction is possibly the earliest Christian belief in an anti-christ com-

         bined with a pseudo-Christ.  The lawless man may be historical figure, but 

         more than that, he is a mythical figure who is the embodiment of Satan.

                    The anti-christ motif is present in Revelation, in more than one form.

         Satan will cause Gog and Magog to gather the nations of the earth against

         Christ.  They are destroyed, not by the direct action of the Christ, but by fire

         from heaven.  The classical anti-christ tradition in Revelation is that of 2

         beasts.  The 1st beast is in part a combination of the 4 beasts of Daniel.  As 

         a whole, it symbolizes the Roman Empire; its heads are various emperors 

         who are worshiped, with one being a revived Nero.

                    The 2nd beast has 2 horns like a lamb, but speaks like a dragon; it

         enforces the worship of the 1st beast under penalty of death.   The 1st 

         beast is the scarlet woman's consort—i.e. Roma, the divine personification

         of Rome.  In Christ's coming, the 2 beasts are captured and thrown into the

         lake of fire.  All this seems mysterious, but much of the mystery is clarified

         when it is seen as a combination of various traditional views.

                    Anti-christ traditions persisted for centuries in the Christian church.

         Early references to Antichrist outside of the Bible are in the Didache, a 

         church manual from the first part of the 100s A.D.  The vivid imagery of Re-

         velation has been used by popes to describe their political adversaries,

         and by those adversaries to describe the Pope.  

                    The pre-Reformation and Reformation period's challenge to papal

         authority, and awareness of the clergy's corruption and immorality, saw 

         charges that the Roman Church was Babylon and the papacy was the anti-

         christ made more and more.   The Reformers themselves were accused of 

         being the anti-christ.  In more recent history, Napoleon, Napoleon III, Kaiser 

         Wilhelm, and Hitler have been called anti-christs.

                    The anti-christ tradition has had a long and involved history.   Its ori-

         gins are somewhat obscure, but the use made of it through the centuries        

         in the Christian church is fairly clear.   For many Christians, it is still an im-

         portant belief, even if the Anti-Christ is not identified with any actual person,

         but is considered a supernatural embodiment of evil.  

 ANTI-LEBANON  The eastern mountain range parallel to Lebanon.

 ANTIMONY  (פוך (pook); כחל, (kaw khal))  An element that looks like tin or

         lead; it is hard and brittle, almost as heavy as iron.  Both Hebrew words

         seem to be general terms for eye paint.

 ANTI-NOMIANISM.  The doctrine that the moral law is made void through faith,

         and that faith alone is necessary to salvation.  The term isn't biblical, but the

         idea of anti-nomianism is attacked in the letter of James, and is never defen-

         ded in the New Testament.

 ANTIOCH (OF PISIDIA)  A city in the lake district of southwestern Asia Minor.

         This Antioch is located in the border zone between the ancient districts of 

         Pisidia and Phrygia.  People lived in the area long before the city was foun-

         ded by either Seleucus I or Antiochus I (around 280-250 B.C.) as a border

         fortress. 

                    After the Romans defeated Antiochus III, the city was declared free

         (188 B.C). Eventually it became part of the Roman province of Galatia (25

         B.C).  The Romans established their veterans in Antioch as colonists, who

         lived there with Greek speaking inhabitants, Phrygian, and a large Jewish

         community.  A cult of Augustus was established, roads were built, and Anti-

         och became the center of commerce in Pisidia.

                    Today, the city walls are still prominent on 3 sides; the 4th side is

         steep and overlooks the river Anthius.   Much of the ancient architecture 

         can still be seen.  Antioch remained an important town in Byzantine times.

         A 4th-century basilica is notable for mosaics and Byzantine graves.  The

         The city still existed as a fortress during the Crusades, over 1,000 years 

         after its founding. 

 

ANTIOCH (SYRIAN)  A Hellenistic city in northwestern Syria, ranking with Rome 

         and Alexandria as 1 of the greatest cities of the Greco-Roman world. It was

         located at the head of navigation on the Orontes River, and was important 

         as a center of trade between the Mediterranean world, the Syrian hinterland, 

         and the Eastern  countries.  Antioch also lay on the best land route between 

         Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine.  The value of the site was early recognized, 

         and it was occupied by traders from early historic times.  The Pax Romana 

         in time offered a needed measure of security and police protection to the 

         Christian missionaries. 

                    (See also the entry in Old Testament (OT) Apocrypha/Influences Out-

         side the OT section of the Appendix.)

                  The ancient, large Jewish colony enjoyed good standing in the com-

      munity and attracted a number of Gentiles who found Jewish monotheism 

      and ethics more satisfying than the beliefs offered by the Greek and orien-

      tal philosophies and religions.   We don't hear that early Christian prea-

      chers contended with Jewish fanatics as they did in Jerusalem.   Antioch 

      must have must have enjoyed a degree of public order which wasn't pos-

      sible in a turbulent place like Jerusalem. 

                 Antioch's population in the time of Christ was characterized by an 

      mixed intellectual spirit and an interest in religious inquiry.  The whole his-

      tory of the city had given it a unique character in which the Christian mis-

      sion  might find a start. When a persecution broke out in Jerusalem follo-

      wing Stephen's execution, some followers of Jesus fled as far as Phoe-

      nicia, Cyprus, and Antioch.  

                                       A-48

                   Some of the fugitives began to preach to Greek-speaking Gentiles, 

        some of whom attended the synagogues; many were converted. The con-

        version in Antioch of numbers of Gentiles then raised the question of the 

        application of Jewish law to these converts.  Jewish & Gentile Christians 

        presumably met in separate private houses, because of Jewish law. 

                   Some understanding seems to have been reached, to the effect

        that the mission to the Gentiles shouldn't have to observe the law strictly.

        But then, James sent Judas Barsabbas and Silas as emissaries, who 

        sought to win over the Jewish Christians to the view that the law must be

        be enforced on Gentiles; the Jewish Christian community later disap-

        peared.  Beyond this, we have little evidence concerning the particulars of

        the Christian community here.

                   In Antioch the followers of Christ first came to bear the name “Chris-

        tians.” It may have been a derogatory nickname invented by the Gentiles, 

        or a term started by the Roman police as an official designation for the new 

        sect. There were “prophets and teachers” who came to Antioch, among 

        them, Barnabas and Paul, who spent a year teaching there.  They separa-

        ted after a disagreement; Paul traveled with Silas, while Barnabas took 

        with him John Mark.  This is the end of Paul's connection with the commu-

        nity of Antioch, where his work was of vital importance for Christianity's 

        future. There are not many ancient remains preserved above-ground at 

        Antioch, now known as Antakya. 

ANTIOCH, CHALICE OF   A much-discussed example of Christian art, said to 

        have been found in 1910 at Antioch.  It consists of a plain inner cup, an 

        outer gilded openwork shell, and a solid base, all of silver.  Its date has 

        been much disputed, with each of the 1st 6 centuries being suggested 

        as possibilities.  Some believe  that the inner cup was used at Jesus' last 

        supper.  The chalice dates from the 300s and 400s and the figures proba-

        bly represent Christ and 10 of the New Testament apostles or authors.

ANTIOCHIANS  (Aνtιοχιeς(an ti ok ees))  “Citizens of Antioch” was a title of 

        honor and privilege requested for certain inhabitants of Jerusalem by the 

        high priest Jason. Probably only a restricted number of Jews embracing 

        Greek culture were registered as citizens of Antioch; they formed a legal 

        corporation and had legal privileges as citizens of Antioch. 

ANTIPAS  (Aνtιπας ) 1. An Idumean who had been made general of all Idu-

        mea; father of Antipas in #2.      2.  An Idumean who was a very rich, 

        active, and seditious man.  Antipas and Hyrcanus made an expedition 

        against Aristobulus, and gained a temporary victory.  This Antipas was father 

        to Herod the Great.      3.  Son of Herod the Great by the Samaritan Mal-

        thace and brought up in Rome.  This Antipas was “Herod the tetrarch” of Ga-

        lilee, who dealt sadistically and harshly with John the Baptizer and Jesus. 

ANTIPATRIS (Aνtιπαtρις )  A city about 16 km northeast of Jaffa, named in 

        honor of Antipater, procurator of Judea under Julius Caesar.  The Old Tes-

        tament city of Aphek existed on this spot as early as 2000 B.C.  Alexander 

        Janneus constructed a moat and wall with a tower between Caphar Saba 

        Joppa in 85 B.C., which was promptly destroyed by Syria.  Antipatris later 

        served as a Roman military relay station on the border between Judea and 

        Samaria.  Antipatris is mentioned only in Acts 23, as the destination of a 

        night journey by 470 Roman soldiers conducting Paul.  Antipatris was re- 

        presented at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 A.D., and was the location of 

        massacres of Christians, as well as the site of a medieval castle. 

ANTONIA, TOWER OF (Aνtωνια) The palatial guard tower rebuilt by Herod 

       the Great at the temple court's northwest corner in Jerusalem, which 

       served as royal residence as well as soldiers' quarters.  It is known as 

       “barracks” or "castle” in the  Book of Acts.

                   A tower on this site may go back to the time of Solomon, whose wall 

        made a turning at this point, which marks the highest point in the neighbor-

        hood and an obvious place for a tower.  Such a tower would surely be de-

        stroyed along with the city walls by enemies who usually attacked from the 

        north.  It was rebuilt by Nehemiah, and by Hyrcanus, after which it was oc-

        cupied by Maccabean rulers. When it was finally rebuilt by Herod in great 

        splendor, it received the name Antonia, in honor of Mark Anthony.  Roman 

        procurators used it as one of the official residences. The revolt of the Jews 

        in 66 A.D., resulted in its destruction by Titus.

                   Its strategic position was 23 m high, with the Tyrpoeon Valley on the 

        west and a deep trench on the north.  Above the rock, the stone walls rose 

        another 18 m.  There were 3 corner towers 23 m high and the southeast to-

        wer, which was 31m high.  The interior was spacious, with apartments, cloi-

        sters, baths, large courtyards, and barracks; stairs have direct access to 

        the temple, as well as an underground passage for emergency use.

                      From David to the last of the Maccabean rulers, this fortress faced 

        outward towards its northern enemies.  Herod the Great built it facing in-

        ward, with the highest tower overlooking the temple court, to stand guard 

        over the Jews.  A cohort (500-600 men) was stationed there. The priestly 

        vestments were kept there by Herod and the procurators.  Jesus' hearing 

        may have been held here.  Antonia was also where Paul disputed with 

        Jewish leaders, and where he spoke with Roman permission to the Jews in 

        the temple court. The Tower of Antonia at the last was taken by Titus and 

        used as a command post for his assault on the temple mount, which was 

        destroyed in 70 A.D. 

ANVIL  (פעם (paw ‘am), anvil or “to strike”)

ANXIETY (דאג (daw ‘ag); כעס (kaw ‘as); חרדה (khah raw daw); 

        meριmναω (me rim na oh)) In the Bible, one encounters humanity's anxie-

        ty for their life.  Biblical writers treat anxiety as a natural part of humankind's 

        existence, but also theologically as sinful and a denial of God's providence 

        and care.  Anxiety's opposite is a quiet, trustful mind in enjoyment of the 

        peace of God.  The word itself occurs only a few times in the Bible, but the 

        idea is expressed frequently using other words, such as “care.” 

                                        A-49

                 The Psalms especially give verbal expression to these feelings of 

        crushing anxiety and care (e.g. Psalms 27, 51, 69, 71, 102).  The New Tes-

        tament voices many of the same anxious concerns as the Old Testament,

        fears of poverty, hunger, and just everyday life.  In Christian life, men volun-

        tarily take over a concern for others.  The answer to the burdens of life is to 

        be found in prayer, in God and God's care. 

                    Jesus himself walks as one whose inward strength and peace can't

        be undermined by men.  Jesus' teachings on anxiety is new and radical, 

        for he outlaws anxiety, and brands it as pagan and worldly. Jesus also 

        couples the “cares of the world” with “the delight in riches.” In the Sermon 

        on the Mount, Jesus prohibits anxiety, both for real necessities, and for

        manmade necessities:  “Do not be anxious about your life . . .”  He makes

        the following points: (See next page).

                1st, human concern should be centered on life's real purpose.
           2nd, such anxiety over basic needs ignores God's providential 

                    provisioning.
           3rd, God's sustaining providence proceeds independently of human 

                    anxiety.
           4th, God's care for the ephemeral flowers is perfect and beautifully
               complete; humankind is no less important to God.
           5th, Such anxiety is pagan and is a direct contradiction of God's
               foreknowledge and care.
           6th, Man's first concern should be for the cause of  God's kingdom.

              Did Jesus intend this teaching on anxiety to be taken literally, or as 

        an interim ethic, or as something for Judgment Day? Disciples who accept 

        the rule of the kingdom now present have found a new focus in which 

        God's will controls all purposes and goals.
              Man is now to live, not in anxious self-centeredness, but in grati-

        tude for God's great gift of the kingdom.  In the kingdom all man's concern

        and desires find their true place and proportion, for God's will and provision 

        extend to the humblest needs as to the highest goals. 

APE  (קוף (koaf)).  Any of the tailless manlike animals of the Primate order.  It is

        impossible to identify the “apes” which the Red Sea fleet of Hiram and 

        Solomon brought back to Palestine; most likely they were baboons, which 

        were well known in Egypt. 

APELLES  (Aπeλλeς )  Someone designated as one “approved in Christ”;  an 

        otherwise unknown figure. 

APHARSACHITES  (אפרסיא) A word from Persian, denoting an official some-

        thing like a governor.

APHEK  (אפק, a brook bed, fortress (?))  1.  A city-state on the Plain of Sharon 

        in central Palestine; their king was slain by Joshua.  The site was occupied 

        as early as 2000 B.C.  It was strategically placed at the Yarkon River's

        source, and on the road from the coastal plains into the Ephraimite hill coun-

        try; it was a natural rallying point for Philistine forces, both when they cap-

        tured the ark of the covenant at Ebenezer (1050 B.C.), and when they defea-

        ted and killed Saul. Herod and the Romans built Antipatris on this spot.

                   2.  A site near Canaan's north frontier with the Amorites and north of 

        Palestine, 24 km east of Byblos, regarded as part of Israel's inheritance, but 

        never possessed by her. 

                   3.  One of the Canaanite cities in Asher's inheritance, Asher could 

        neither expel or make inhabitants subject to them.  It is one of two Apheks 

        in northern Palestine, this one is near Acco and the Mediterranean Sea.

                   4.  Northern Palestine's other Aphek, located just east of the Sea 

        of Galilee on the road from Damascus to Beth-shan.  Ben-hadad was defea-

        ted near here by Ahab's inferior force.  He sought refuge here with the rem-

        nants of his forces, only to have the city walls collapse. 

APIS  (חף (khaf))  The sacred bull known as Apis was worshiped in Memphis    

        by the Egyptians from the earliest historical times as a god of fertility; he 

        was a manifestation of the god Ptah, and was later known as Osiris-Apis or 

        Serapis.   The bull representing Apis was chosen with great care by its

        priests.  During its lifetime it was honored with divine adoration and at its 

        death it was mummified and buried in a special place.

APOCALYPTICISM  The dualistic, cosmic belief in the end of the world, invol-

        ving two opposing cosmic powers, God and Satan, with the present, evil age 

        under Satan, and the future, perfect and eternal age under God's rule after 

        the end.   This religious thought originated with Zoroastrianism and was 

        taken over by Judaism in exilic and post exilic periods.  It is an important 

        part of popular Christian belief, past and present.  The 2 main apocalypses 

        of the Bible are the Book of Daniel and the Book of the Revelation.   Other

        Other books of the Bible resemble apocalypses, but do not have an apoca-

        lypse's most important features.

                   Apocalypticism is mainly dualistic, good in the person of God, and 

        evil in the person of Satan.  In Persian thought, Ormazd was the good, and 

        Ahriman was the evil, both equally strong.   Because of the traditional mono-

        thesim of Judaism, the dualism was not as obvious as in Persian thought; 

        Satan was clearly inferior to God.  Likewise, in Christian thinking Satan is 

        quite active, both in opposing God and in tempting humankind, but he isn't  

        God's equal.  In Persian thought, all living creatures, men and supernatural, 

        are divided according to their allegiance to Ormazd and Ahriman.   Jewish

        and Christian apocalypses have the same division. 

                  The end-of-time element in this writing is combined with the dualism.

        Both time and beyond time are involved. There is the 1st age, the present 

        age, evil and corrupt.  The righteous minority was oppressed and persecu-

        ted by the many evil followers of Satan.  There's no hope for them in this 

        present age.  Their only hope is that God will soon intervene with might and 

        power, in a cosmic conflict with Satan that will involve the whole of creation.

                                       A-50

                   Apocalypticism then, provides both an explanation of the evil that is 

        so evident and a concrete solution of the concrete problem of the righteous: 

        Satan has gained control of this present age; he is responsible for its wic-

        kedness and corruption and oppression of the righteous.  It is different from 

        prophetism, messianism, and the expectation of the kingdom of God, for 

        these aren't dualistic, they are not cosmic in scope, and they do not involve 

        the end of time or age.  God is in control of this age.

               There are 8 secondary features of the apocalypse. 1st, because the 

        term “apocalypse” is from a Greek word meaning a disclosure, it is often 

        asserted that an apocalypse must be a vision or visions.  Not all apocalyp-

        ses are visions; in fact, visions play a secondary, artificial role.  Some visio-

        nary works, like Ezekiel are considered apocalyptic, when they don't fit all 

        the special qualities of apocalypses.  2nd is pseudonymity, or attaching a 

        name to a work other than that of the actual author.  It should be noted that 

        pseudonymity of most apocalypses has a relationship to the visionary expe-

        riences; both are literary devices to gain sanction for the author's message. 

                   3rd, and strangely enough not a primary feature for apocalypses as 

        a whole, even though Jesus Christ is Messiah in the Christian apocalypse, 

        is the idea of the “messiah,” which is not present in all apocalypses.   The 

        messiah's relatively unimportant role in apocalypses as a whole indicates 

        that he is an addition to the Jewish apocalypse and not a primary element 

        of it.  The Antichrist was introduced as the Satanic counterpart to the mes-

        siah, without which there can be no messianic kingdom between the pre-

        sent age ruled over by Satan and God's future age.  

                   Angels are the 4th feature of apocalypses, with demons as their evil

        counterpart.   The appearance of angels came in Judaism following the Per-

        sian period.   As God's position rose far above the world, it was natural that

        hosts of angels were assigned to do God's work in the world.  Animal and

        bird symbolism, at times bizarre in character, is the 5th feature.   6th is a

        belief in numerology, the mystical significance of numbers.  

                   7th is a list of stereotyped woes preceding the end of this present

        age.  8th is a heavenly tablet predetermining the deeds and fate of human-

        kind, borrowed by Judaism and Christianity from astral belief in the zodiac

        Also tied in with astral belief is belief in a heavenly city, which is the perfect,

        heavenly pattern of its earthly counterpart.  It is misnamed “New Jerusa-

        lem,” because it existed before the earthly Jerusalem.  

                  Apocalypticism is hopelessly pessimistic concerning this present age; 

        there's nothing the righteous can do to make this age a better time in which 

        to live.  The doctrine of the kingdom of God is quite different.  According to 

        it, God has not abdicated this earth to Satan. This present (and only) age is 

        capable of improvement if men will only learn and do God's will.  

                   Even so, apocalypticism has had and will continue to have a great in- 

        fluence. It has been most widely accepted among the have-nots, the poor, 

        dispossessed, oppressed, persecuted.  The strong, long-standing appeal of 

        apocalypticism has been its uncomplicated explanation for the existence of 

        evil.  And the audiences of these apocalypses may come to think of them-

        selves as being involved in a great cosmic process as a personal partici-

        pant in the triumph of good over evil.

                  This belief strengthened both Jews and Christians in times of persecu-

        tion, when the former were persecuted by the Syrians, and when both were 

        persecuted by the Romans.   Although it assumes that for now God has re-

        moved God's self from the world and God's people, it teaches that before 

        long God will assume God's sovereignty so that finally right will triumph 

        over wrong.   Apocalypticism may serve as a corrective to human pride, but 

        not necessarily the best corrective.   Its emphasis upon eternal rewards and 

        eternal punishment marks a step in the development of Christian views con-

        cerning life after death.   Much of our present theological thinking has been 

        directly or indirectly influenced by apocalypticism, so it is important to have 

        an understanding of its basic features.

APOLLONIA (Aπολλωνια)  A Greek city in Macedonia distinguished as  Apol-

        linia in Mygdonis, 48 km from Amphipolis.   Paul and Silas passed this city, 

        which was 61 km from their destination of Thessalonica. 

APOLLOS  (Aπολλως)  An influential member of the early Christian church.  

        Apollos was a Jew, a native of Alexandria, and the presumption is that he 

        grew up there.   He was fervent, eloquent, and well versed in the Old Testa-

        ment, probably both the Hebrew and the Greek ones.   Apollos knew not 

        only data about Jesus, but also some of Jesus' teaching.   However, he  

        knew only about the baptism of John.   He was instructed in Christian bap-

        tism, and taught in Ephesus and Corinth, the latter being after Paul had 

        established the church there. 

                   In Corinth, he apparently became the focus of partisan loyalty in 

        one of the 4 parties into which the Corinthian church had divided.  This 

        is part of the reason Paul's Letter to the Corinthians was written.  Paul's 

        work was prior to that of Apollos, and Paul dismissed any partisan loyalty 

        on behalf of either Apollos or himself.  Paul states emphatically that he 

        was the foundation layer, and that all others, including Apollos, necessarily 

        build on that foundation.  They may well have many guides to Christ, but 

        they have but one father in Christ, namely Paul. 

                   At one point Apollos was with Paul; Paul urged him to revisit Corinth 

        when Apollos was inclined to not go for fear of stirring up partisanship.  The 

        Acts of the Apostles only tells us that Apollos was closely connected with 

        Paul's work in Corinth and Ephesus, and shows Apollos to be quite inde-

        pendent of Paul.

APOSTASY  (αποσtασιιι, desertion, abandonment, rebellion)  Originally it 

        was the political term for a rebellion.  The religious use of the term is found 

        in the primary Greek Old Testament, and meant departure from the law of 

        God, desertion of the cause, worship, temple, synagogue, or abandonment 

        of obedience toward God. 

                                       A-51

APOSTLE  (Aποσtολος, to send off or out)  A title denoting a commissioned 

        messenger or ambassador.  The Greeks rarely used the term, and then only 

        to describe a naval expedition or a colonists group.   The Jews made use of 

        apostles at the same time that Christian apostles were doing their work.  

        The Jewish apostles were ordained emissaries of the Jerusalem religious 

        region, sent out to visit the Diaspora, in order to serve legal documents, col-

        lect moneys, or convey instructions.   In Hebrew, they were called shaliah.  

        The most prominent shaliah of the Old Testament were Moses, Elijah, Eli-

        sha, and Ezekiel, in the sense that they were God's agents “sent out” by  

        God; their status was temporary and not transferable.

                   Jesus “sends out” his disciples with his own authority to continue and 

        extend his mission.  For Jesus, apostleship is purely a religious commission 

        to carry out God's purpose for human salvation, and it is a lifelong authoriza-

        tion.  When they were first sent out, the Twelve are given a precise commis-

        sion for a limited sphere and time, and they went out by twos, which is all in 

        keeping with the Jewish custom.

                   Paul associated his own claim to be an apostle with the fact he had 

        seen the risen Lord and received from him direct commission to preach the 

        gospel, and especially to Gentiles, but not exclusively to them.  Paul also in-

        sisted upon special deference to authority in the churches that he founded, 

        considered apostles the ministry's highest gift.   Paul uses the word “apo-

        stle” both in the Christian sense by describing himself as Jesus Christ's    

        apostle, in the Jewish sense in describing the church's emissaries.   When-

        ever it is applied to individuals in later Christian literature, the term's use is 

        metaphorical.  When certain individuals of the 2nd generation styled them-

        selves as actual apostles, their claim was attacked as fraudulent. 

                   The process of limiting proper doctrine to the teaching and example 

        of the founder-apostles is most clearly indicated in the book of Acts. The     

        word  “apostles” is used to refer to the 12 and to the council of Jerusalem 

        elders. Paul and Barnabas are called apostles, perhaps in a limited Jewish 

        sense of the word.  The Acts of the Apostles' author, shows by this title the 

        early establishment of the tradition that the apostles were 12, but that this 

        did not exclude Paul or even a few others,  such as James and Barnabas. 

APPEAL TO CAESAR After Paul's arrest in Jerusalem, he was taken by Roman 

        soldiers to Caesarea to foil a Jewish plot on his life.  He was imprisoned by 

        Felix; Festus had Paul brought before him and after the Jews brought their 

        charges, he asked Paul if he wished to go to Jerusalem and be tried there. 

        Paul answered that he did not want to be delivered to the Jews for trial and 

        then he appealed to Rome. 

                   Paul appealed to Caesar because he didn't want to be tried under 

        Jewish law, and because he believed the Roman governors were preju-

        diced.  Paul's Roman citizenship gave him the right to appeal his case to 

        the emperor.  In capital offense cases, this right was customarily granted. 

        Paul could have been released had he not appealed; his appeal required 

        that he go to Rome.  There is no record of the results of his appeal.

APPHIA (Aπφια) Someone addressed in the Letter to Philemon's salutation.  

        She may be Philemon's wife; all we know for certain is that she was a Chris-

        tian in either Colossae or Laodicea, and a friend of the author.

APPIAN WAY.  A Roman road which ran from Rome southeast to Brundisium on 

       the “heel of the boot” in the southeast corner of Italy.  The Appian Way was 

       built in 312 B. C. by the censor or magistrate Appius Claudius Caecus, at 

       first only as far as Capua.  Slightly over 100 years later, it was extended to 

       Brundisium.  The Apostle Paul most likely used the part between Capua and 

       Rome on his journey to Rome.

APPLE  (תפוח (tap pu akh))  A tree poetically referred to for shade, beauty, 

        fragrances, and sweet fruit, as in the Song of Solomon.  Using the word 

        “apple” to translate the Hebrew word has been challenged, because the 

        apple tree is found only in very remote areas, with very poor fruit.  The 

        local tree that most closely resembles the apple tree is the quince.  It is 

        not clear how the apple became associated with the Garden of Eden.

APPLE OF THE EYE.  English idiom denoting the pupil of the eye and therefore 

        a very precious thing.  “Apple” is used in 3 places to translate 3 different 

        words.   In Deuteronomy (32.10), the Hebrew word literally means “little 

        man,” referring to the reflection one sees in the eyes of another.  In Lamen-

        tations (2.18), the Hebrew means “daughter.”   In Zechariah (2.8), the He-

        brew means “gate.”  Lamentations refers to an actual eye; the other 2 are 

        metaphorical.

APRON  (חגרה (khag o raw))  Originally the inner girdle around the waist; in 

        the New Testament, the girdle wrapped around the waist.  In Genesis, ap-

        rons were made of fig leaves to cover Adam and Eve.

AQUEDUCT See Waterworks

AQUILA AND PRISCILLA (Aκυλας (ak ul as), Rρισκιλλα (pri  skil la)  Hus-

        band and wife, companions of Paul in Corinth and Ephesus.

                   Aquila was a Jewish native of the Asiatic province of Pontus who mi-

        grated to Rome.   He was expelled from Rome along with his wife Priscilla 

        around 49 or 50 A. D.  They were Corinth residents when Paul arrived; it is 

        not clear whether they were Christians yet.  It is possible Paul could have 

        worked for Aquila and lived with them. 

                  Paul took Aquila and Priscilla with him to Ephesus; here they met

        Apollos, a brilliant man who did not know about Christian baptism; Aquila 

        and Priscilla took part in teaching him.   When Paul sent his 1^st letter from 

        Ephesus to the Corinthians, he included greetings from Aquila and Prisca.

        Over the years, more and more people believe that Priscilla was more ca-

        pable than Aquila; many credit her with writing the Letter to the Hebrews.

                                       A-52

AR  (ער, city)  A Moabite place located on the southern bank of the Arnon River, 

        which is on the northern border of Moab.  Its exact location and significance

        is unclear.

ARA (ארא, lion) One of the sons of Jether in the genealogy of Asher.

ARAB (ארב, ambush)  A village of Judah (Joshua 15).

ARABAH  (ערבה, arid, sterile)  One of the main regions of the land of Israel,  

        extending from the Sea of Galilee south on both sides of the Jordan; most 

        of it is below sea level.  It includes the Dead Sea and ends at the Gulf of 

        Aqabah.

                   The southern Arabah was one of the ways the Israelites came on 

        their journey.   They journeyed southeast from Kadesh-barnea to Ezion-

        geber, leaving it to turn north and go around Edom and Moab.  The Amo-

        rites conquered the Moabites and their part of the Arabah.  The Israelites 

        conquered the Amorites and took over the Arabah.  It was the scene of 

        Moses' last acts.  Joshua crossed the Jordan into the Jericho Arabah and 

        established the sanctuary at Gilgal.   Abner fled through it after his defeat 

        at Gibeon.   Zedekiah was fleeing towards it when he was taken by the     

        Babylonians.

                   In later prophetic literature, the Arabah's barren Dead Sea section, 

        prior to the destruction of the 5 wicked cities, had been an unusually fer-

        tile plain.  Restoration of this barren territory is one of the promises of the 

        future restoration of Israel.  Ezekiel speaks of a stream that is to issue 

        eastward from the threshold of the temple, which will go down to the Ara-

        bah and make it and the Dead Sea fruitful and productive.

                   “Arabah” was used to describe any part or all of the region.  “The 

        plains of Moab” actually refers to the Moabite portions of the Arabah.  The 

        “sea of the Arabah” refers to the Dead Sea.  Amos uses the phrase “Brook 

        of Arabah,” probably to refer to the region between the Dead Sea and the 

        Gulf of Aqabah in the same way the Arabs do with “Wadi el-Arabah.”  Amos 

        seems to be parroting the boast of the king of Israel, who conquered the 

        area, predicting instead that affliction and disaster will come from this place. 

                   The Arabah's Jordan Valley portion extends about 80 km; it starts at 

        210 m below sea level near the Sea of Galilee and slopes southward and 

        downward to 390 m at the Dead Sea.  Starting in the north, the first 40 km 

        is about 19 km wide, comparatively fertile and well-watered.   The next 8 

        km, opposite Samaria, narrows and changes from fertile to sterile. 

                   In the last 32 km, the Jordan is supplied by the Jabbok, Shu'aib, and 

        Fari'a rivers.  The Jordan has cut down about 45 m into the soft, alluvial soil 

        and winds its way through a dense jungle.  On both sides of this are stret-

        ches of very fertile land, and very steep cliffs that rise over 100 meters.  

        The valley is 19 km wide at Jericho and 10 km wide at the Dead Sea.  The 

        Arabah never became a highway from north to south because of the terrain 

        north of the Dead Sea.  It is crossed by a number of east-west roads, espe-

        cially in the northern half, where the tribe of Manasseh held lands on both 

        sides of the Jordan.

                   The greater part of the Dead Sea region, about 80 km in length and 

        about 16 km wide is occupied by the Dead Sea itself.  The hills on either 

        side are steep and barren.  On the west side are the traditional sites of the 

        cities of Sodom and Gomorrah.  South of the Dead Sea lies the modern 

        Wadi el-'Arabah, and it extends about 160 km in a south-southwest direc-

        tion.  After the Dead Sea there are mud flats, which extend south for 13 km. 

        At this point, the valley begins to slope upward, rising above sea level after 

        about 48 km.  The valley is as much as 40 km wide in places.   The whole 

        region is a desert, marked only by occasional oases. 

                   Its importance lies in its location and its minerals.  Ezion-geber, at its 

        southern extremity, was Canaan's southeastern gate, the entering point of 

        the trade from Arabia, India, and Africa.   The Arabah contained the only 

        mines for copper and iron that are to be found in Canaan.  This made the 

        region a source of contention between Edom and Judah.   

ARABIA  (ערב, desert)  A large peninsula of southwestern Asia.  The north-

        western portion of Arabia is the scene of some important biblical events.  

        The biblical use of the word “Arabia” varies in meaning to include part or 

        all of Arabia.  In the New Testament, it is used for the Syrian desert east 

        of Damascus.  Biblical places which can be located in Arabia with some 

        certainty include: Buz, Dedan, Dumah, Ephah, Havilah, Hazar-maveth, 

        Hazor, Massa, Midian, Ophir, Parviam, Raamah, Sabtah, Seba, Sheba,

        Tema, and Uz. 

                    Arabia is the largest peninsula in the world, covering over 2,000,000 

        square km or about 1/3 the size of the continental U. S.  It is roughly rec-

        tangular in shape; the west coast is 2,880 km long and the width across it 

        from the Red Sea to the Persian Gulf is over 900 km.  Its boundaries are 

        the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of 'Uman in the east, the Red Sea in the 

        west, roughly the Euphrates River in the north, and the Gulf of Adan and 

        the Indian Ocean in the south.   Surrounded as it is by water, the Arabic 

        name is Jazirat al-'arab, “Island of the Arabs.”

                  The geographic region of Arabia Petrea includes Sinai, Edom, Moab, 

        and eastern Trans-Jordan.   The coasts of Arabia have been rising and 

        there are few good harbors.  The west coast is fringed with coral reefs; the 

        Great Pearl Banks are along the Persian Gulf.  The 2 most important is-

        lands off the coasts of Arabia are Suqtra in the south and Bahrain in the

        Persian Gulf.  The rim of mountains along the west and most of the south-

        ern coast intercepts moisture, leaving the interior dry. 

                   In central and northern Arabia are fields of broken lava, probably the  

        parched places mentioned in Jeremiah.  The mountains of Arabia are sepa-

        rated by many valleys; plains, usually narrow, are found along the coasts.  

        The geological regions include the igneous rock of the western coastal 

        mountains, sedimentary rocks of the northeast, which lie under the largest 

        known accumulation of oil, and the recent lava beds.  

                                   A-53

                   In southern Arabia is al-Rab al-Khali, “the Empty Quarter,” the lar-

        gest expanse of sand in the world, and the sands are spreading.  There are 

        oases on the caravan routes that carried Arabian incense and the products

        of Africa and India across northern Arabia.  The weather is dry and hot; 

        there are no large lakes and only one, short perennial river in Adan.   Dig-

        ging for the water in the subsoil with sticks is a common practice. 

                   The plants of Arabia include: frankincense, date palms, and manna 

        from the tamarisk tree, which is common in Arabia.  Desert plants include 

        mallow, bushes, broom, and nettles.  The domestic animals that are found 

        in Arabia are the camel, sheep and goats, asses and horses.  Wild animals 

        found in biblical Arabia are the lion (then, not now), mountain goats, wild 

        oxen (now extinct), wild asses, the jackal, the hyena, the gazelle, and poi-

        sonous serpents.   Some birds of Arabia are the raven, the ostrich, the 

        hawk, the eagle, quail, owl, and the kite. Arabia may have been the bree-

        ding ground for locusts which attacked neighboring areas like Egypt.  And 

        Persian Gulf oysters were one of the main sources of pearls in the ancient 

        world.

ARABIANS  (ערבים, nomad)  People from Arabia, and more particularly from 

        northern Arabia.   In ancient times there was no one name for this area, nor 

        any single ethnic name for its people.  In the Old Testament, these people 

    `   were known as Ishmaelites, Midianites, Dedanites, Sebeans, etc., rather 

        than as Arabs.  

                   Paleolithic sites exist in both northern and southern Arabia, and evi-

        dence suggests a definite distinction between northerners and southerners 

        even in the Stone Age.  Abraham is represented as in contact with the 

        Bene Heth, from whom Abraham purchased a burial ground for his family, 

        and among them Esau found wives.  The description of Ishmael as a “wild 

        ass of a man whose hand is against every man and every man's hand is 

        against him,” suits remarkably well the Bedouin of northern Arabia, whose 

        raids of settled  folk has been a perennial factor in Near Eastern history.

                   Throughout Arabian history there is a sense of a difference and 

        even a certain antipathy between southern and northern Arabs, which con-

        tinued even under Islam.  As early as 1200 B.C., the south had developed 

        a civilization whose greatness is only now beginning to be realized.  The 

        northern Arabians pictured in the Old Testament had contact with Palestine 

        from the patriarchal age onward, in both peace and war.

                   In the Gideon story the Midianites, Amalekites, and Bene Qedem, 

        raid from the east where they pitched their tents, plunder, and retreat into 

        the desert.   The capture of Ziklag by the Amalekites, and the raiders who 

        carried away Jehoram's family are characteristic razzia, raiding stories, in 

        which eluding pursuit afterwards is deemed worthy of high praise.  The 

        “ravens” of the Elijah story were probably the Bedouin.   In Old Persian in-

        scriptions, however, Arabaya has both geographic and ethnic meaning.  

        The Sabeans who attacked Job's herdsmen were dwelling in the north. 

                   On the other hand, the writers picture these same peoples as con-

        tributing in peaceful ways to Israel's life.  The Midianites are traders who 

        lead caravans to Egypt.  In Isaiah they are caravan people supplying Is-

        rael with luxury.  In the Moses story, they are a pastoral people among 

        whom Moses found a wife.  The head of David's camel keepers was an 

        Ishmaelite, the chief herdsmen over his flock a Hagarene.  Solomon is re-

        garded as having profited from the trade of these Arabians. The exiles 

        who returned under Nehemiah to rebuild Jerusalem found Arabs under 

        the Nabatean Gashmu among those seeking to hinder them.  (See also 

        the Nabatean entry in the Old Testament Apocrypha/Influences Outside 

        of the OT section of the Appendix.)  

                  These were the only northern Arabians who founded a civilization 

        comparable with those in the south, with Petra as the center of their king-

        dom, stretching from the Red Sea to beyond Damascus and deeply into 

        Arabia.  Their names reveal them as Arabs, but they used Aramaic as 

        their literary language, so that it became the source of later Arabic script.

        Near New Testament times, Aretas IV (9 B. C.- 40 A.D.) seized power 

        without Roman acknowledgement, although he got it later.  

                   Aretas IV was the Aretas of Paul's time.  His son Malichos II lost

        Damascus and was compelled to aid Vespasian and Titus in the war 

        against the Jews.  The Arabians present at Jerusalem on the Day of Pen- 

        tecost were apparently Jews from some Nabatean settlement.

                   All of these people of Arabia, though dominantly nomadic, have in-

        cluded semi-nomadic and fully settled groups.  Arabic literature is full of 

        references to the contempt the nomads have for settled folk and the 

        scorn of the settled peoples for the nomad.  The nomadic tribes, whose 

        members are theoretically blood brothers, were led by the sheik and his 

        council of elders.  Necessities of water and pasturage dominate their 

        economy. 

                   Their traditional beast of burden is the camel, but before its effec-

        tive domestication they employed asses.  The women do the domestic 

        work around the tent; the men tend camels and horses, hunt and raid.     

        Raiding has always been the traditional sport of the Bedouin.   Care is

        taken not to shed blood while raiding, but since blood is often shed, Be- 

        douins were often involved in the dread duty of blood revenge. 

                   This nomadic lifestyle bred hardiness, frugality, possessiveness, 

        stubbornness, and truculence, and makes them prize manliness, forti-

        tude, and hospitality, and despise order and discipline.  Their sole forms 

        of artistic expression were poetry and pithy gnomic wisdom.   On the 

        other hand, Petra and delicate Nabatean pottery show what could be 

        accomplished by the northern sedentary groups.   The nose ring and 

        bracelets given to Rebekah are still ornaments given a Bedouin girl. 

                   We have material that gives us a fair picture of the religious life of 

        the southern Arabians.  But we are not well informed about the religion 

        of the northern Arabian nomads.  There were temples, some of them im-

        posing structures, at the more important settlements as well as nume-

        rous sanctuaries in the sparsely populated areas, centers to which the 

        nomads went in pilgrimage. 

                                   A-54

                     At such shrines there was generally a sacred stone, and a sacred

        well with several sacred trees near by.  There  were rites of walking around 

        the shrine, animal and human sacrifices, offerings, divinations and festivals. 

        The territory for some distance round such shrines offered sanctuary from

        the avenger of blood. 

                   Prominent among the goddesses was the ancient Mother Goddess, 

        who would seem to have been the deity of the Meccan shrine.  Lower in 

        rank than deities were other angelic beings, and of still lower rank are  

        great numbers of spirits (jinn), sometimes benevolent, sometimes male-

        volent, whose influence had to be guarded against with charms and con-   

        jurations.  Evil eye was also guarded against.  There was a trend toward 

        monotheism in both the south and the north.

ARAD  (ערד,  wild ass)  1.  One of the sons of Beriah in the genealogy of  

        Benjamin.     2.  A Canaanite city of the Negeb in the time of Moses 

        and Canaan's conquest.  Arad ambushed the Israelites, the Israelites 

        destroyed Arad.  

ARAH  (ארח, traveler, ox)  1.  One of the sons of Ulla in the genealogy of 

        Asher.     2.  An ancestor of some of those who returned from Babylo-

        nian captivity.

ARAM  (ארם, lofty)  1.  The 5th son of Shem; the father of Uz, Hul, 

        Gether, and  Mash in the genealogy of Noah; it also serves as a table of 

        nations.      2.   Son of Kemuel and grandson of Nahor, who was Abra-

        ham's brother.       3.  The 3rd son of Shemer in the genealogy of Asher. 

                   4.  Most frequently used as a singular collective (i.e. “the Aram”) 

        for the Arameans, an important Semitic people living throughout the 

        Mesopotamian and Syrian areas in many scattered tribes and settle- 

        ments.  The land of Aram is not a political or geographical unit but only 

        indicates a concentration of Aramean population.  

                   Roughly, Aram in the Old Testament covers the area beyond the 

        Jordan and northeast of Palestine around the Fertile Crescent into the 

        upper Tigris-Euphrates Valley.  At the same time as the monarchy in 

        Israel, Damascus became the center of Aramean power and influence in

        the west; the term “Aram” during this time means Damascus and the sur-

        rounding territory.  They were warring neighbors and rivals throughout 

        most of the period of the monarchy until Assyria destroyed first Damas-

        cus, then Israel, then Judah.     

ARAM-NAHARAIM  (ארם נהרים, Aram of the rivers)  A northern Mesopo-

        tamian area, especially important as the home of the Hebrew patriarchs.  

        David fought against these people, perhaps when the Ammonites hired 

        their chariots and horsemen against him.

ARAM-ZOBAH  (ארם צובה)  An Aramean town and kingdom in the Biq'a.

                                   A-55